He was the swift-footed Achilles, the greatest warrior of the Trojan War, a semi-divine hero whose very name was synonymous with speed and power. And yet, for centuries, the smart brilliance of an ancient Greek philosopher has left him perpetually—and quite comically—stuck behind a tortoise. Zeno’s paradox presents a philosophical conundrum that still captivates people millennia after it first questioned the intellectual doctrines of Ancient Greece.

It is a paradox that prompts us to question the nature of motion and reality itself. Specifically, it compels us to explore the infinite—a concept that still confounds quantum physicists today.

Zeno’s Paradox: The problem with Achilles and infinite steps

Picture the scene: Achilles, in all his glorious, muscular beauty, lines up against a tortoise. The tortoise, naturally, gets a head start—a gesture of fair play, one might say, that quickly devolves into philosophical torture.

During this event, Achilles, being well, would instantly sprint past the slow tortoise. But Zeno, with a mischievous twinkle in his eye, argued otherwise. Before Achilles can even reach the position where the tortoise started, the cute little animal will have managed to go forward a little compared to its initial position.

When Achilles finally arrives at that particular spot, the tortoise has moved again. This would carry on forever. This continuous cycle, Zeno noticed, continues ad infinitum, meaning Achilles is forever playing catch-up, never truly reaching the tortoise. It sounds childish and blatantly wrong, but is it? Think about it. It makes sense. It’s enough, at least, to make you wonder about what’s real and what isn’t.

This confused the ancient Greeks, whose understanding of infinity was still rudimentary. It challenged the very idea of continuous motion, suggesting that movement itself might be an illusion, a series of frozen moments rather than a fluid progression. Indeed, Zeno’s mentor, Parmenides, had famously argued that reality was static and unchanging, and our perception of movement was nothing but a trick of the senses.

Zeno, always the loyal—and brilliant—student, used his paradoxical skills skillfully as an intellectual shield for this peculiar paradox. One can almost imagine the expressions on the faces of Athenian philosophers as Zeno calmly explained why their fastest runner could never quite outrun a slow tortoise.

Of course, modern humans comprehend concepts such as calculus, therefore understanding that Zeno’s apparent deadlock is resolved. Mathematicians like Newton and Leibniz, centuries later, demonstrated that an infinite series of ever-decreasing distances can indeed sum to a finite total.

This means that in Zeno’s paradox, Achilles does overtake the tortoise; the finish line, for him, is not an illusion. Yet, to dismiss Zeno’s paradox completely as a mathematical footnote and a logical mistake would be to miss its profound impact on human thought.

It was a puzzle that had such a consequential effect that it shaped our understanding of the universe. Consider quantum mechanics, for example, where particles seem to exist in multiple states simultaneously—a concept similar to Zeno’s discomfiting fragmentation of reality.

Our digital devices work by breaking down continuous processes into tiny, distinctive steps. This is similar to how a movie creates the illusion of motion from individual frames. This approach, which traces back to Zeno’s ideas about infinitely dividing space and time, is embedded in much of our modern technology.

However, beyond academia and the complex equations of physics that ordinary people can’t even comprehend, the paradox of Achilles and the tortoise has a surprisingly relatable, almost melancholic, wisdom for our own lives that is easier to grasp.

Achilles and the tortoise as a modern metaphor for our lives

How many times have we felt like Achilles, tirelessly chasing a goal, a dream, or even just the promise of a calmer, better tomorrow, only for it to perpetually remain just out of reach? Life, too, often feels like a series of infinite, tiny steps, each requiring immense effort, each seeming to bring us no closer to the finish line despite the progress we make daily.

Yet, Achilles and the tortoise, when illuminated by the light of calculus, can become a story of hope. It tells us that even an infinite process can have a finite, tangible result, perhaps representing the better tomorrow we all strive for. Progress is undeniably real, however gradually it arrives.

So, the next time you feel stuck, relentlessly pursuing a goal that seems to go further away with every step, remember Achilles and that remarkably slow tortoise.

Zeno, the ancient Greek mastermind, may have created this paradox to confound his contemporaries. But in doing so, he left us with a timeless truth: movement—whether through space, thought, or life itself—is never as simple as it appears. Yet, if we keep putting one foot in front of the other, even if the journey feels impossibly long, like Achilles, we will get there. Eventually.

Related: The Strange Paradoxes and Puzzles of Zeno of Elea

The Greek alphabet has changed in many ways over the course of its existence. This is hardly surprising, given that the Greeks have been using it for nearly three millennia. One way in which it has changed is that some letters that used to exist in the Greek alphabet are now missing. Which letters were these, and what do we know about them?

The first letters of the Greek alphabet

To start, let us establish how the Greek alphabet acquired its letters in the first place. According to ancient Greek historians, the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet after the arrival of a Phoenician prince named Cadmus. Archaeology confirms that this occurred at some point in the ninth century BCE.

The Phoenician alphabet was composed of only consonants. When the Greeks adopted it, they modified it to include vowels as well. This was a major step forward in the development of writing.

According to Plutarch, a Greek historian of the first century CE, there were originally sixteen Greek letters. However, Hyginus, an earlier writer, reports that there were originally eighteen.

In reality, it appears that neither version is correct. Physical evidence in the form of ancient inscriptions reveals that the earliest Greek inscriptions made use of all twenty-two letters in the Phoenician alphabet. However, four of these were for sounds which did not exist in Greek, so they were modified into vowels.

Perhaps this is where Hyginus’ idea of eighteen original letters comes from, being a distorted memory of the eighteen original consonants. In any case, the total number of letters in the Greek alphabet increased over time.

Why are there some missing letters?

Some of the letters used in ancient Greek inscriptions are simply not in the modern Greek alphabet. Why is this? Simply put, the reason is that the Greek language itself has evolved over time, and the alphabet exists to comply to the needs of the language rather than vice versa.

Additionally, different dialects of the Greek language existed within the Greek world at the same time. Therefore, the needs of each dialect would not necessarily be covered by the same letters.

In the late fifth century BCE, the alphabet used by the Ionian Greeks became the official, standardized alphabet of Athens. Over the following century, it then replaced the local alphabets of other Greek regions. By that time, the dialect of the Ionian Greeks was such that their alphabet did not make use of all the letters that had once been in use. Rather, their alphabet used just twenty-four letters. Hence, what were the letters that the Greek alphabet used to have but no longer does?

Digamma

One of the most famous lost letters of the Greek alphabet is Digamma. This had the following form:

Ϝ

It is superficially very similar to the modern F, but the sound was completely different. It was essentially the modern w sound. In fact, the original name for this letter was ‘wau’, taken directly from the Phoenician name for this letter.

San

Another lost letter is San. This had the following form:

Ϻ

Like Digamma, this looks almost identical to a more familiar letter. In this case, it looks just like the modern letter M. However, like with Digamma, the sound indicated by this ancient letter was completely different. Unlike the modern M, the ancient San, or Ϻ, was used to indicate an s sound. This fell out of use in favor of the alternative letter Sigma, written as Σ.

Koppa

Another letter that is no longer in use is Koppa, which had the following written form:

Ϙ

This is similar to the modern Q in the English alphabet, and that is no coincidence. Koppa was still part of the Greek alphabet when the Latins adopted it, which led to this letter eventually becoming the Q in English. The English alphabet originated from the Romans. The sound Koppa indicated was a k sound. It eventually fell out of favor in Greek, being replaced by the alternative letter Kappa, written as Κ.

Sampi

This next letter is called Sampi. It was written as:

Ͳ

This is very similar to the modern T, but it is unrelated. That modern letter comes from the ancient Greek Tau which, of course, had a t sound. In contrast, the ancient Greek Sampi had some kind of s or sh sound, although the exact vocalization is unknown. In any case, it fell out of favor when this sound was no longer used.

Ancient Greek scientist Erasistratus (300-250 B.C.) is credited with being among the first human lie detectors. He devised a specific technique to read a person’s physical response so as to spot when an individual was lying.

While in Alexandria, Egypt, he is said to have proven Prince Antiochus was desperately in love with his father’s new wife, Stratonice. He noted how his pulse increased significantly whenever the queen’s name was mentioned, despite his insistence that he did not have the hots for his stepmother.

Love-struck, he fell ill with passion and chose to pine away in silence. The physicians were unable to discover the cause and nature of his disease.

Erasistratus himself was at a loss at first, until, finding nothing amiss about his body, he began to suspect that it must be the man’s mind that was diseased and that he might perhaps be in love.

Erasistratus confirmed his conjecture when he observed that the skin of Antiochus grew hotter, his color deeper, and his pulse quicker whenever Stratonice came near him, while none of these symptoms occurred on any other occasion.

The Greek physician eventually told the father, King Seleucus, that his son’s disease was incurable, for he was in love with the monarch’s wife and that he chose to die rather than to disclose his secret.

According to the anecdote, Seleucus not only gave up Stratonice, but also resigned to his son several provinces of his empire.

Erasistratus founded school of anatomy in Alexandria

Erasistratus, along with fellow physician Herophilus, founded a school of anatomy in Alexandria where they carried out anatomical research.

He is credited for his description of the valves of the heart. He also concluded that the heart was not the center of sensations. Instead, he said, it functioned as a pump. He was among the first to distinguish between veins and arteries, believing that arteries were full of air and carried the “animal spirit” (pneuma).

Together with Herophilus, he is credited by historians as the potential founder of neuroscience due to his acknowledgment of nerves and their roles in motor control through the brain and skeletal muscles.

Furthermore, Erasistratus is seen as one of the first physicians/scientists to conduct recorded dissections and potential vivisections alongside Herophilus.

The two physicians were said by several Roman authors, notably, Augustine, Celsus, and Tertullian, to have performed controversial vivisections on criminals to study the anatomy and possible physiology of human organs while they were in Alexandria.

Related: Ancient Library of Alexandria One of Greatest Treasures of Mankind

A new bill introduced by the Greek Ministry of Finance recently in the nation’s Parliament includes sweeping salary increases for the highest-ranking officials of the Orthodox Christian Church of Greece. Under the proposed legislation, the Archbishop and Metropolitan Bishops will see their monthly gross pay rise by as much as 95%, standardizing their new salaries at €4,671.90.

Greece to restructure how Bishops are paid

The adjustments, outlined in Article 56 of the extensive finance bill, fundamentally change how the state compensates senior clerics. Rather than utilizing the previous tiered allowance system, the new legislation equals the base pay of Metropolitan Bishops with that of the Archbishop of Athens and All Greece.

Both positions are now pegged directly to the compensation of top government executives. Specifically, the hierarchs will receive 90% of the maximum gross salary allotted to a Ministry General Secretary. The public sector basic salary limit for General Secretaries adjusts to €5,191 effective April 1, 2026. The legislation calculates the new clergy pay explicitly as 90% of this figure. The bill firmly states that no other supplementary benefits or allowances will be paid beyond this established rate.

Prior to this legislative update, senior clergy salaries fluctuated based on specific representation expenses and educational qualifications, such as holding a master’s or doctoral degree. The contrast with the new pay scale is significant:

The Archbishop: Previously earned a monthly gross income ranging from €2,840 to €2,915. The adjustment delivers an approximate 60% baseline increase.

Metropolitan Bishops: Previously collected between €2,400 and €2,475 monthly. Under the new equalization framework, their gross pay jumps by up to 95% to match the Archbishop.

Assistant and Titular Bishops: The bill standardizes compensation for lower-ranking hierarchs, setting their total monthly salaries at exactly 70% of the top-tier rate.

Wider public sector wage adjustments

While initially framed around measures combating the energy crisis and supporting vulnerable groups and pensioners, the bill extends far beyond ecclesiastical pay. The legislative package contains comprehensive wage restructuring for various sectors of the Greek state apparatus.

Articles 49 through 55 dictate specific salary and promotional adjustments for the judiciary and civil service. Judicial officers facing delayed promotions due to a lack of open vacancies will receive calculated percentage adjustments to their base pay, depending strictly on their accumulated years of service.

The bill also implements hard compensation caps for other public servants. Members of constitutionally protected independent authorities who hold supplementary government positions cannot exceed 80% of a judicial officer’s total pay. Finally, the legislation actively standardizes the pay scales for administrative staff serving both the Presidency of the Government and the Presidency of the Republic, ensuring direct alignment with the updated 2026 public sector guidelines.

Ever found yourself scratching your head, wondering if aside from legendary philosophers and epic poets there were also any “tech gurus” in ancient Greece? When the conversation turns to Greek scientific minds, one might think of figures like Archimedes and Euclid and rightly so. However, there’s a name that truly deserves a much brighter spotlight—that of Ctesibius.

Ctesibius was a true genius of Hellenistic Alexandria, who, quite literally, set the wheels (and yes, the water organ, or hydraulis!) in motion. Due to his brilliant mind, he laid down fundamental principles for technologies that, believe it or not, continue to shape our everyday world to this very day.

Ctesibius was one of ancient Greece’s greatest innovators

Born into the vibrant, intellectual epicenter of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic era, Ctesibius became a hands-on inventor, driven by an almost insatiable curiosity to truly understand and harness the raw power of the natural world.

Imagine at a time when entire civilizations relied on human muscle and simple machines, seeing someone create music from water or build a clock accurate for two thousand years. The sheer innovative audacity of Ctesibius was difficult to fathom.

Of course, at a time of wizards, this wasn’t a magic trick but the real, unadulterated brilliance of the mind of this Greek man. His groundbreaking contributions to pneumatics, the study of compressed air, and hydraulics, the science of liquids in motion, were utterly revolutionary for their time, making Ctesibius the “father of pneumatics.”

Just think about the fact that long before your car tires ever saw a pump or your pneumatic drill came to life, Ctesibius meticulously explored the very principles that made these tools possible. It’s a bit humbling, isn’t it, how many unsung heroes from antiquity have genuinely shaped the modern world we so often take for granted?

From melodic water organs to clocks

Among Ctesibius’ most well-known creations was the hydraulis, a genuinely revolutionary water organ. This was, quite simply, the world’s very first keyboard instrument. What an astonishing feat of engineering from over two millennia ago! It ingeniously utilized water pressure to guarantee a completely constant supply of air to its pipes, producing a sound that was remarkably stable and resonant. Imagine the awe of ancient audiences in hearing such a complex, melodic instrument for the absolute first time. It must have felt like nothing short of a miracle.

Beyond the enchanting music, Ctesibius’ improvements to the clepsydra, or water clock, were equally impressive. Prior to this tech guru, water clocks were notoriously imprecise. He revolutionized them through innovative mechanisms for regulating water flow and added an indicator system that provided unprecedented accuracy.

For over 1,800 years, his water clocks were the absolute gold standard in timekeeping. In other words, the pinpoint accuracy of your smartphone’s clock owes an indirect yet profoundly deep debt to a man who lived centuries before the mere concept of electricity was even a thing.

Ctesibius’ impact on our world

While Ctesibius himself may not have managed to become one of ancient Greece’s top names, his principles and inventions survived the test of time. They influenced later Roman and Arab engineers and eventually powered the European Renaissance. The very force pump he designed, for instance, is a direct progenitor of modern pumping systems, absolutely essential for everything from our city water supplies to the fire engines we rely on to keep us safe on a daily basis.

His profound understanding of the properties of air-laid processes set the foundation for all future pneumatic applications which today power everything from colossal industrial machinery to delicate medical devices. Hence, next time you hear the satisfying whoosh of a bus door, the gentle hiss of an automated machine, or simply admire the quiet precision of a modern watch, take a moment to think back to Ctesibius, the ancient Greek tech genius.

A highly ambitious transportation proposal aims to connect Athens with approximately 40 other destinations in Europe through a high-speed “mega-metro” rail network by 2040. Dubbed “Starline,” the blueprint of this plan hopes to replace Europe’s fragmented national railways with a unified 22,000-kilometer (14,000-mile) system, significantly reducing travel times for Greek and European passengers overall, offering a green alternative to short-haul flights.

Developed by the Copenhagen-based think tank 21st Europe, the Starline project proposes five major railway corridors spanning 22 nations across Europe. The proposed routes include Line A from Naples to Helsinki, Line B from Lisbon to Kyiv via Madrid, Line C connecting Madrid to Istanbul, Line D from Dublin to Kyiv, and Line E linking Milan to Oslo. Operating like a city metro on a continental scale and obviously above ground, the network will link European cities under a single transit identity, with trains reaching speeds between 300 and 400 kilometers per hour.

Where do Athens and Greece come into the equation of this Europe-wide system?

For Greece, the infrastructure upgrade would drastically alter regional connectivity within the country and across southeastern Europe. Τhe European Commission recently announced targets to cut Sofia-to-Athens travel from 13 hours and 40 minutes to six hours, and Berlin-to-Copenhagen from seven hours to four.

The proposal complements these targets across the continent, where similar reductions will happen. A trip from Berlin to Copenhagen, from example, will drop from seven hours to four, while historically overnight routes like Kyiv to Berlin will become predictable, direct daytime connections.

Transportation remains one of Europe’s largest climate challenges, generating roughly a quarter of all greenhouse gas emissions. While aviation accounts for a smaller percentage globally, short-haul flights remain the default for millions of European travelers. High-speed rail produces up to 90 percent less carbon dioxide per journey. 21st Europe states that a large-scale shift to rail represents the best path toward meeting the European Union’s 2050 net-zero emissions targets while maintaining fast mobility.

The proposal moves away from traditional railway conventions as the dark blue trains will abandon standard first- and second-class divisions, replacing them with purpose-built spaces such as quiet workspaces, family-oriented sections, ergonomic seating, and communal coffee areas. This layout aims to democratize long-distance travel and prioritize passenger comfort.

There is something about Greece that sets it apart from many other holiday destinations across the globe; its mythological sites.

Many ancient societies had different beliefs and myths, but none are more prominent in modern-day life than that of the Greeks. Their creatures have become legends, their tales inspiration for great fiction and their gods immortalized through the continued retelling of their conquests and trials.

Delos: an ancient mythological site in Greece

Matched only by the Acropolis of Athens, Greek mythological site the ruins on the island of Delos are an unmissable location for anybody interested in ancient Greek culture. One of the best-preserved examples of an ancient Greek civilization, the island is completely unblemished by modern architecture and as such, allows its visitors to delve deep into history.

However, it is not just a site of great historical importance, but a mythological one too. It was on this island that both gods Artemis and Apollo are said to have been born. As a result, the island became a sacred place. Sanctuaries and temples sprung up across its hillsides as people from across Greece came to the island’s shores to worship the deities.

The Labyrinth, a famous site in Greek mythology

One of the most famous and exciting stories of Greek mythology is the tale of Minos, Theseus and the Minotaur. Minos was a powerful king, ruler of Crete and the son of Zeus, but after he betrayed Poseidon, he was cursed to raise a son with the body of a man and the head of a bull. Using this curse to his advantage, however, Minos built the fabled Labyrinth and trapped the Minotaur within it. He would then send victims to their deaths until Theseus, prince of Athens, ventured into the Labyrinth and slayed the beast.

While there are no Minotaur bones for you to see, there are two possible Labyrinths to explore. First is the likely home of King Minos, and therefore the most plausible home for the labyrinth, Kommos. Located along the southern coast of the island, Kommos is a great place to visit, with spectacular ancient ruins and beautiful ocean views.

However, if you venture deep enough into the ruins of this ancient city, you will find many maze-like corridors and walkways that may have been the Minotaur’s home; or at least the inspiration for its tale. However, just down the road you will also find Gortyn, a site of great archaeological importance to Crete and another suspected home of the Labyrinth. Further away from Minos’ home, these ruins bear a much similar resemblance to the maze of mythology. Perhaps then, it is best to visit both Greek mythological sites and decide for yourself.

The Island of Ithaca: an ancient Greek site and holiday destination

Ithaca, a well-known Greek mythological site for a holiday destination, is a place with a very interesting mythological past. Most notably, it was home to the legendary trickster Odysseus, the island’s greatest king and the brains behind the trojan horse.

Odysseus was also the protagonist of Homer’s “Odyssey.” His decade-long struggle to return home after the war is the source of many of the most enduring Greek myths.

The famous Cave of Zeus on the Greek island of Crete

Hidden away on the island of Crete is an extraordinary piece of Greek mythological history. Within a cave beneath Mount Ida, it is said that the King of Gods, Zeus, was born and raised.

The Cave of Zeus is a beautiful location, with one entrance leading into a network of caves filled with stunning rock formations and underground pools. It does indeed seem a fitting place for the beginnings of the greatest god Greek mythology has ever known. However, it was not by choice he was raised here but by necessity.

His father, the titan Cronus, was set on devouring all of his progeny to ensure that they could never contest his power. However, unbeknownst to Cronus, Zeus’ mother, Rhea, hid him within the cave so one day he could return to overthrow his tyrannical father; which, according to legend, he did.

Mount Olympus: Home of the Greek gods

Along the eastern coast of the Greek mainland, you will find one of the most well-known natural landmarks in the world; Mount Olympus. This legendary and iconic Greek mythological site is an awe-inspiring sight, however, there is more to it than meets the eye.

In Greek mythology, Olympus was created after the gods defeated the titans in the battle of Titanomachy; otherwise known as the War of the Titans. Atop its peak they then built the Pantheon, where Zeus sat upon his throne as King of Gods and the rest of the deities would convene to discuss matters of the world below and survey the world of men.

Seeing all these incredible mythological sites can be tricky, unless you charter a course aboard Deep Blue Yachting’s luxury sailing boat, the Glaros. It is a private vessel, you can set your own course and visit every site on this list, all in one trip.

By Cliff Blaylock

The Greek government is reportedly finalizing legislation to impose a 15% tax on capital gains derived from cryptocurrencies, aiming to formally integrate digital assets into the national tax code. According to government officials who spoke to Reuters on Friday, the Ministry of National Economy and Finance in Greece is drafting the bill, which authorities expect to submit to Parliament for approval in the coming months.

Under the proposed financial framework, the initial 500 euros of cryptocurrency profits will remain exempt from the new tax to shield small-scale retail investors. Any capital gains exceeding this threshold will face a flat 15% rate, aligning the taxation of digital assets with traditional securities sales in Greece.

It is believed that people engaged in personal cryptocurrency mining will not face taxation on their yields. However, if the mining operation functions as a registered corporate entity, standard business tax rules will apply.

The current situation regarding cryptocurrency taxation in Greece

At present, Greece operates without a comprehensive legal framework specifically targeting cryptocurrency profits and people making a living out of them. This regulatory gap reflects a broader inconsistency across the European Union, where member states currently lack a unified fiscal system for the rapidly expanding sector. Across the continent, tax rates on digital capital gains vary significantly, ranging from an 8% low in neighboring Cyprus to 30% in France. The upcoming Greek legislation seeks to close domestic loopholes and bring Athens in line with European peers that have already established clear rules for digital investors.

The legislative move coincides with a wider European push to curb tax evasion and financial opacity within the digital space. The European Union recently introduced the Markets in Crypto-Assets (MiCA) Regulation and the DAC8 Directive, which mandate strict reporting standards and demand that crypto-asset service providers share user transaction data with national tax authorities. Greece’s updated tax code will operate in tandem with these measures on a European level.

A pointless measure?

Despite the planned implementation, government sources acknowledged severe difficulties in measuring the actual size of the domestic cryptocurrency market. The vast majority of Greek investors execute their trades through international, offshore platforms rather than locally registered exchanges. This decentralized structure makes it nearly impossible for financial authorities to accurately track the total volume of digital assets held by people. Consequently, the Ministry of Finance has not yet published any specific projections regarding the exact state revenues the 15% tax might generate.

Until the proposed legislation officially becomes law, cryptocurrency profits remain largely undeclared in Greece, leaving a substantial pool of potential state revenue untapped.

Ukraine officially apologized to the Greek government on Friday following the discovery of a Ukrainian sea drone near the Ionian island of Lefkada. The unexpected discovery of the uncrewed surface vessel prompted swift diplomatic action from Athens, which raised serious safety and environmental concerns regarding the military presence in Greek territorial waters.

Last week, the Greek government escalated the issue by lodging a formal double diplomatic demarche. Athens directed its official protests to both the Ukrainian Embassy located in the Greek capital and directly to the Ukrainian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Kyiv. Greek authorities clearly stated that the stray sea drone severely compromised the safety of civilian maritime navigation in the busy Ionian Sea, which is a popular tourist destination both for Greeks and foreigners. Experts noted that any accidental detonation or collision involving the device could have led to human casualties and inflicted extensive environmental damage on the region’s marine ecosystem.

Ukraine’s response to Greece

In direct response to the diplomatic protest from Athens, Ukrainian Foreign Ministry spokesman Heorhii Tykhyi released a public statement on social media late on Friday evening, addressing the issue. Tykhyi offered a formal apology on behalf of Ukraine, attributing the drone’s errant journey into Greek waters to the unpredictable circumstances generated by the ongoing Russian invasion of Ukraine.

“The Ukrainian side expresses its apologies for the incident, stressing that it was the result of circumstances brought about by the ongoing Russian aggression,” Tykhyi wrote in a statement published on Friday. He argued that the discovery off the coast of Lefkada, along with similar events reported in other regions, demonstrates how the current conflict threatens not only Ukraine but also friendly European states and the broader international community.

Addressing the specific maritime concerns raised by the Greek demarche, the Ukrainian foreign ministry noted its strict commitment to international law and the fundamental principles of civilian maritime safety. Ukraine also reiterated a strong, vested interest in preventing any similar occurrences from happening in the future.

Tykhyi pointed out that international and regional security, specifically maritime safety and combating the operations of Russia’s “shadow fleet,” remain urgent, shared priorities for both Greece and Ukraine. Despite the immediate friction caused by the drone’s discovery, Ukraine utilized the statement to emphasize the strength of its bilateral relationship with Greece.

The foreign ministry expressed deep gratitude to the Greek government and the Greek people, praising the country for its steadfast, continuous support of Ukraine since the very first days of Russia’s full-scale invasion. Kyiv concluded by reaffirming its dedication to deepening these friendly relations and maintaining a constructive dialogue across all areas of mutual interest.

As one of the most famous figures in human history, it comes as little surprise that the life of Alexander the Great is tied to several legends of mythic proportions, of which several concern the conqueror’s encounters with sea monsters.

Alexander’s armies traversed much of the known ancient world, leaving their native Macedon far behind them. Over the course of their long campaigns, they encountered many strange sights, some of which may have inspired later myths and legends.

At least two historians, from the ancient and medieval periods, described Alexander the Great and his encounters with sea monsters. The first was Diodorus Sciulus, a Greek historian of the 1st century BC and the Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun of the 14th century AD.

The sea creature at the siege of Tyre, 332 BC

In 323 BC, the intrepid Macedonian king laid siege to Tyre, a well-fortified Phoenician city-state on the coast of the Mediterranean. The city was extremely difficult to penetrate because it was located on an island and was defended by high walls that came right up to the sea.

Nevertheless, it was necessary to capture Tyre to deny the Persians access to a strategically important naval base. Thus, Alexander ordered his engineers to prepare artillery pieces and siege works for an assault on the city.

However, whilst this effort was underway, a strange event in which the army of Alexander the Great encountered a sea monster in the waters around Tyre occurred, according to the writings of Diodorus Siculus.

“As the Macedonian construction came within range of their missiles, portents were sent by the gods to them in their danger,” wrote Diodorus Siculus.  “Out of the sea, a tidal wave tossed a sea monster of incredible size into the midst of the Macedonian operations.”

“It crashed into the mole but did it no harm, remained resting a portion of its body against it for a long time and then swam off into the sea again,” continued the Greek historian. “This strange event threw both sides into superstition, each imagining that the portent signified that Poseidon would come to their aid, for they were swayed by their own interest in the matter.”

A less fantastical explanation for this incident is possible than a mythical sea monster sent by Poseidon. The creature in question may have been a shark, dolphin, whale, or other entirely normal aquatic inhabitant.

Alexander the Great and the sea monsters of Alexandria

The siege of Tyre was not the only time Alexander is said to have encountered a sea monster. According to the Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun, he saw several mythical aquatic beasts in Egypt.

In fact, Ibn Khaldun claimed that sea monsters initially halted the construction of Alexandria until Alexander devised a way to scare them away from the area.

“Sea monsters prevented Alexander from building Alexandria,” wrote the scholar. “He took a wooden container in which a glass box was inserted, and dived in it to the bottom of the sea. There he drew pictures of the devilish monsters he saw.”

According to Ibn Khaldun, “He then had metal effigies of these animals made and set them up opposite the place where building was going on. When the monsters came out and saw the effigies, they fled. Alexander was thus able to complete the building of Alexandria.”

George Souflias, a prominent figure in Greek politics and a long-serving cabinet minister for the center-right New Democracy party, died at the age of 85, it was made public late on Friday evening. Known for his long political career across multiple key ministries and his two bids for the New Democracy (ND) party leadership, Souflias leaves behind an impressive political record spanning over three decades. He had reportedly been facing several health challenges in his final years that led to his death on Friday.

Who Was Souflias

Born on July 7, 1941, during the German Nazi occupation, in the village of Agia Triada in the Farsala municipality of Thessaly, Souflias initially built a career far from politics. He earned a degree in civil engineering from the Polytechnic School of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. By 1967, he had established his own design and construction firm in the central Greek city of Larissa, working extensively in the private sector prior to his transition to public service.

His political career launched alongside the restoration of Greek democracy following the junta of 1967–1974. As a candidate for the ND party, Souflias was first elected to the Greek Parliament representing the Larissa constituency in 1974. He quickly established a formidable local stronghold, securing re-election in 11 subsequent national contests: 1977, 1981, 1985, both the June and November elections of 1989, 1990, 1993, 1996, 2004, 2007, and finally in 2009.

Throughout his parliamentary tenure, Souflias was entrusted by party leaders and prime ministers with some of the most critical portfolios in the Greek government. He began his executive service as Deputy Minister of the Interior under Prime Ministers Konstantinos Karamanlis and Georgios Rallis. His influence grew significantly in subsequent administrations. During the Tzannetakis government in 1989 and the later Mitsotakis one between 1990 and 1993, he served as Minister of National Economy. He also held the cabinet positions of Minister of Finance, Minister of National Education and Religious Affairs, and Minister of Environment, Physical Planning, and Public Works (ΥΠΕΧΩΔΕ).

Within the center-right ND party, Souflias was a powerful internal factional leader, mounting two high-profile campaigns for the party leadership. He challenged Miltiades Evert for the leadership in 1996 and subsequently ran against Kostas Karamanlis during the party’s fourth congress in 1997. Both bids were ultimately unsuccessful. Political friction eventually led to his formal expulsion from New Democracy in 1998. The rupture proved temporary, and he was readmitted to the party ranks in 2001, resuming his position as a senior conservative official.

Souflias officially stepped away from public life following the 2009 national elections.

Although he was re-elected as a Member of Parliament for Larissa, he chose to resign his seat immediately. His retirement came amid heavy internal party criticism, as Souflias had been the primary proponent of calling the 2009 snap elections, a strategic decision that resulted in a severe electoral defeat for ND and the landslide election of the center-left PASOK party under George Papandreou, only months before the beginning of the Greek financial crisis. Following the loss, he accepted the political fallout and permanently withdrew from active politics.

Stoicism, was one of ancient Greece’s philosophical movements founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC.

Stoicism is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. For the Stoic, virtue alone is sufficient for human happiness.

For Stoics, emotions like fear, envy, passionate love were merely false judgements and the sage, a person who had attained moral and intellectual perfection, would not be touched by them.

It is a philosophy of life where the individual maximizes positive emotions, reduces negative emotions, and helps him or herself hone their virtues of character.

The name derives from the porch (stoa poikile) in the Agora at Athens decorated with mural paintings, where the members of the school congregated, and their lectures were held.

Birth of Stoicism, one of ancient Greece’s philosophical movements

The philosophy of Stoicism was originally known as “Zenonism” after the founder, Zeno of Citium.

Zeno ended up in Athens after his ship wrecked near the city. He was not a philosopher, but he turned his misfortune into an opportunity by studying all the philosophical resources available in the city.

He sat in on lectures from the other schools of philosophy (e.g., Cynicism, Epicureanism) and eventually started his own.

However, the Stoics did not believe that the founders were perfectly wise. In order to avoid their philosophy becoming a cult of personality, they chose to name it Stoicism after the place they were meeting, the stoa poikile of the Agora.

Zeno’s ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno’s most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.

Other prominent Stoics included Cleanthes of Assos, Panaetius of Rhodes, Aristo of Chios, Posidonius of Apameia, Diodotus, and others.

Later, Seneca, Epictetus, and Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius ushered Stoicism to the Roman world. The philosophy flourished until the 3rd century AD.

Stoic Philosophy

According to Stoicism, the path to eudaimonia (happiness) is embracing and accepting the moment as it presents itself by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain.

The Stoic must use his or her mind to understand the world and to do one’s part in nature’s plan by working together and treating others fairly and justly.

The Stoics are especially known for the teaching “virtue is the only good” and that people must lead a virtuous life to be accomplished and complete human beings.

External things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in and of themselves but have value as “material for virtue to act upon.”

The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions, such as fear or jealousy, resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a prohairesis (will) that is “in accordance with nature.”

To live a good life, a person had to understand the rules of the natural order, Stoics believed, since everything was rooted in nature.

For many Stoics, virtue is sufficient for happiness. Thus, a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune and would therefore be considered truly free.

According to Stoics, people don’t truly have control over many things and situations in life. Therefore, they believe that worrying about things outside of their control is unproductive, or even irrational for a person who wants to attain tranquility and happiness.

Stoics differentiate between what is and what is not under human control and do not waste energy and thoughts over uncontrollable adverse events.

Where many people worry endlessly about things out of their control, the Stoics believe they should expend their energy in thinking of creative solutions to problems, rather than the issues themselves.

Stoicism is not about having a set of beliefs or ethical claims. It is not a school of philosophy that is separate from everyday life.

The stoic must continuously practice and train (“askesis”). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices include logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue.

Influence of Stoicism on Christianity

The virtuous life of the Stoic has resemblances to a life led by a good Christian. Stoic writings such as “Meditations,” by Marcus Aurelius, have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries.

The Greek term for word is logos. The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used logos (the word) to explain what he saw as the universal force of reason that governed everything.

In the 5th century BC, Heraclitus said that all things happen according to the Logos. The Stoics also believed in the Logos, along with the notions of conscience and virtue.

A few centuries later, Greek-speaking Jews came to view the Logos as a force sent by God. In the Gospel of John, Jesus is referred to as the Word — “and the Word of God was made flesh and dwelt among men.”

The apostle Paul is known to have met with Stoics during his stay in Athens. In his letters, Paul reflected on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist new converts in their understanding of Christianity.

Both Stoicism and Christianity teach a person the importance of training their mind and body to be disciplined.

Both encourage the elimination of passions and inferior emotions, such as lust and envy, from one’s life, so that the higher possibilities of one’s humanity can be awakened and developed.

“If you want to be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven,” Jesus preached.

Similarly, as Seneca wrote, “We must give up many things to which we are addicted, considering them to be good.”

The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day, as do ascetics all over the world.

Stoicism today

Daily Stoic, How to be a Stoic, The Modern Times Stoic, Modern Stoicism, Traditional Stoicism: these are only a handful of the websites that hail the importance of—even the need for—Stoicism in the 21st century.

Is it possible, though, for today’s man to embrace a philosophy that teaches indifference to material things and possessions in a ruthlessly material world?

An intellectual and popular movement called Modern Stoicism began at the end of the 20th century which is aimed at reviving the practice of Stoicism.

However, before that, Stoic philosophy served as the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy, particularly as mediated by Dr. Albert Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), the major precursor of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

In the original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al., it is stated, “The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers.”

A well-known quotation from the “Enchiridion” of Epictetus was taught to most clients during the initial session by Ellis and his followers: “It’s not the events that upset us, but our judgments about the events.”

This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT.

Ryan Holiday’s The Obstacle is the Way; Stoicism—A Stoic Approach to Modern Life, by Tom Miles; Modern Stoicism, by Steve Brooks; and Modern Stoicism—How to Be a Stoic in the 21st Century, by Stephen Ryan are some of the books on Stoicism that have been published recently.

Famous Stoic quotes

“The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.”

“Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”

“You have power over your mind—not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”

“It is not death that a man should fear, but he should fear never beginning to live.”

“Think of yourself as dead. You have lived your life. Now take what’s left and live it properly.”

“To live a good life; we all have the potential for it, if we learn to be indifferent to what makes no difference.”

“Death smiles at us all, but all a man can do is smile back.”

“Accept whatever comes to you woven in the pattern of your destiny, for what could more aptly fit your needs?”

“The object of life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane.”

“The best revenge is not to be like your enemy.”

“Very little is needed to make a happy life; it is all within yourself, in your way of thinking.”

“Loss is nothing else but change, and change is nature’s delight.”

“It is not because things are difficult that we don’t dare; it is because we do not dare that things are difficult.”

“A gem cannot be polished without friction, nor a man perfected without trials.”

“The bravest sight in the world is to see a man struggling against adversity.”

“Throw me to the wolves and I will return leading the pack.”

“Life is never incomplete if it is an honorable one. At whatever point you leave life, if you leave it in the right way, it is whole.”

“Man is affected not by events, but by the view he takes of them.”

“Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.”

“If you really want to escape the things that harass you, what you’re needing is not to be in a different place but to be a different person.”

“He suffers more than necessary, who suffers before it is necessary.”

“It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.”

“If a man knows not to which port he sails, no wind is favorable.”

“If you want to improve, be content to be foolish and stupid.”

“The world turns aside to let any man pass who knows where he is going.”

“Seek not the good in eternal things, seek it in yourselves.”

“It is the nature of the wise to resist pleasures, but the foolish to be a slave to them.”

“No man is free who is not a master of himself.”

“It is impossible to begin to learn that which one thinks one already knows.”

“Never depend on the admiration of others. There is no strength in it. Personal merit cannot be derived from an external source.”

Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow, also served as a messenger of the gods. Although now a little known member of the pantheon, Iris was a prominent figure in many ancient myths and is even a character in Rick Riordan’s “Lightning Thief” book series.

The Greek goddess was the daughter of Thaumas, whose name means “miracle” or “wonder” in Greek, an old and powerful sea god who was linked to the wonders of the sea, and Elektra, a sea-dwelling nymph.

Her sisters were the terrifying Harpies Ocypete and Aello—fearsome creatures that were half-women, half-birds, who represented the storm winds.

During the Titanomachy, when the Olympian gods fought against the Titans, the old gods, Iris became the messenger for the Olympians and her sister, Arke, delivered messages for the Titans. Arke betrayed the Olympian gods and became the her sister’s rival.

From this point on, Iris served as messenger to the gods, making her the female counterpart of Hermes, who is more widely known for the role.

Iris, Greek goddess of the rainbow and messenger to the gods

While Iris is found throughout Homer’s Iliad, an epic poem that details the story of the Trojan War, and serves as a divine messenger, she is not mentioned in the Odyssey, Homer’s later poem which tells the story of Odysseus’ return home from the war.

Hermes is the messenger of the gods in the Odyssey.

In addition to her role as messenger, Iris is known to serve the gods their nectar from a large chalice she is often depicted holding.

Much like a rainbow, Iris was linked to the sea and sky and serves as a link between the gods and humanity.

In myth, she frequently travels to the ends of the world using the speed of the wind on her wings and even ventures to the depths of the sea and through the underworld, often taking the trips to deliver important messages.

In antiquity, when one saw a rainbow, it was also believed that they were witnessing Iris traveling across the world or through the sea to deliver a divine message to a mortal.

The goddess of the rainbow was described and depicted either as a rainbow or as a stunningly beautiful winged woman, often carrying a staff with wings, as well.

Along with her winged staff, Iris was said to carry water from the River Styx, or the river that led to the underworld, at the command of Zeus. She was to use this water to put anyone who lied to her to sleep. This was the custom when gods made solemn oaths to each other.

In some myths, Iris is considered one of the most beautiful of all of the Greek goddesses.

She conceived a child with Zephyrus, one of the Anemoi, or the Greek gods of the winds. The child was Pothos, the god of sexual desire and longing.

Despite her prominent role as divine messenger, there were no known temples built to Iris, and experts suspect there was little cult activity to the goddess, apart from records of Delians offering cakes made of wheat, honey, and figs to her.

Although described as extremely beautiful, there were also very few statues created depicting Iris. She was frequently portrayed in vase paintings, however. One of the few ancient Greek sculptures of Iris is found on the west pediment of the Parthenon.

The beloved souvlaki has been around since ancient times. Archaeologists have found skewers dating back to the Bronze Age, and recent research looks at the functioning of early grills. In particular, “souvlaki trays” have been discovered dating all the way back to Mycenaean culture.

Therans and Mycenaean cultures were known for their luxurious lifestyles, ornate and colorful clothes, exquisite art, and sea trade with other cultures, such as Egypt. People developed these cultures on the islands of Crete and Santorini.

World’s oldest Bronze Age souvlaki on Santorini

The oldest souvlaki skewers found seem to be those discovered by archaeologists on Santorini dating back as far as 2000 BC. There are traces of the popularity of souvlaki on Santorini and Crete through the Bronze Age, and both Theran and Mycenean cultures made use of this method of cooking.

Ancient Greek texts such as the Iliad and the Odyssey describe a spit (Greek: ὀβελός) being used to roast meat, but the exact functioning of the souvlaki trays was unknown until recently. The works of great poets and writers describe the same obeliskos being popular. Sophocles, Aristophanes, Xenophon, and Aristoteles all mention or describe the popular dish in their works.

Mycenean cooking and culture

It seems that ancient Mycenaeans did not have a large variety of foods available to them. Despite this, they developed various types of cooking methods, fostering innovation. Part of that innovation was souvlaki trays, as was cooking in jars, among other techniques. At the time and for most of ancient history, cooking was mostly done on hearths with few ingredients. The portable and lightweight souvlaki trays changed this for Mycenaeans around 1400 to 1050 B.C.

Academics suggest that an important historical force behind these contraptions was status. While the Myceneans had incredibly rich art and fashion, their diet lacked diversity, though a marker of status was drinking wine. On the other hand, one can imagine poorer Mycenaeans drank beer.

As they were skilled sailors, Therans on Santorini island had begun brewing beer in the II millennium B.C., possibly learning the skill from Egypt or the Near East, where beer had been brewed since the III and IV millennium B.C. Accounts of the 5th and 4th centuries B.C. tell of an Athenian bias against beer. It was considered a drink of barbarians, Egyptians, or even women. Beer brewing was never seen as valuable.

By the Classical period, this all changed. Wine had become readily available to all, pushing elites in later Greek societies to seek other ways to distinguish themselves — for instance, through the use of specific gadgets and kitchen appliances, echoing earlier innovations like the Mycenaean souvlaki trays.

The souvlaki tray

The souvlaki trays found in Gla, Pylos, and Crete added something to the age-old tradition. Similar to modern-day outdoor grills, they were designed to be portable and good for travel or entertainment. Meat cuts seem to have been similar to the ones popular for souvlaki today, made from either lamb, pork, or mutton, and the meal was accompanied by bread made of various cereals.

The clay trays had placeholders for the skewers and, until recently, how they actually functioned was unknown. Researchers at Dartmouth College have recreated the trays using original ancient pottery techniques, tools, and ingredients. They realized the trays were not meant to be put on a hearth as originally thought. Rather, embers were placed in the tray and the skewers were grilled. They were practical, portable, and delicious!

Few figures in late antiquity present as compelling a historical debate as Julian the Apostate’s attempt to restore the Greek gods in opposition to Christianity in the Roman Empire.

During his brief but highly consequential reign in the fourth century AD, the Roman Empire stood at a profound religious crossroads. For a short period, Julian attempted to slow the empire’s accelerating Christianization, launching a sweeping effort to revive the ancient Olympian pantheon and return Rome to its traditional pagan practices. His sudden death on the battlefield has led historians to debate how dramatically the cultural trajectory of Western civilization might have shifted had his reforms endured.

Julian was born into the heart of the Constantinian dynasty, a family that had only recently converted to Christianity. Nonetheless, he became the last Roman emperor to openly support and worship the traditional Greek gods. He ruled for only about two years from 361 to 363 AD, but he acted with urgency and purpose. Julian the Apostate initiated an extensive program of philosophical and religious reform, aiming to reverse the Christian expansion advanced by his predecessors. To the growing Christian population, he was seen as a traitor to the new religious order, but to those who still admired the intellectual and cultural legacy of the classical world, he appeared as a philosopher-king attempting to restore an older vision of Rome.

Julian the Apostate’s early life

Julian did not experience the typical sheltered upbringing of an imperial heir. He grew up constantly looking over his shoulder, surviving political purges that eliminated many members of his own family. Although he was raised in a strict Christian environment under the supervision of powerful bishops, he is often understood to have developed a private intellectual attraction to classical texts and traditions associated with the ancient world.

His life took a decisive turn when he went to study in Athens. There, he was secretly initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an experience that deeply shaped his philosophical outlook and strengthened his commitment to rejecting Christianity in favor of Neoplatonism. This forced dual existence helped form a uniquely strategic mindset. He became familiar with the inner workings of the Church, knowledge he later leveraged in support of his own religious and philosophical aims. By the time his troops in Gaul unexpectedly proclaimed him emperor, Julian was convinced that the gods themselves had chosen him to restore the ancient order.

Julian the Apostate as Emperor and the worship of the Ancient Greek gods in the Roman Empire

When he finally took power, Julian did not launch the kind of widespread, violent persecutions often associated with earlier periods of religious conflict. Instead, he pursued a more calculated cultural strategy. His approach focused on weakening Christian influence within imperial institutions while strengthening traditional religious structures. Julian the Apostate reduced the privileges and state support enjoyed by Christian clergy and redirected resources and prestige toward the priesthood of the traditional Greco-Roman religion centered on the Greek gods.

In a particularly controversial move, he restricted Christians from teaching classical literature. His reasoning was that those who rejected the traditional religious framework of Homer and Hesiod should not profit from instructing it. At the same time, Julian sought to make traditional religion more socially competitive by encouraging pagan priests to adopt public charitable functions, including aid for the poor and the establishment of hospitals—areas in which Christianity had been especially successful in gaining support. He appears to have believed that traditional worship had declined not because of its inherent weakness but because its institutions had failed to match the organizational and charitable presence of Christianity.

In practice, many historians argue that this cultural and intellectual strategy posed a different kind of challenge to early Christianity than outright violence. While persecution could strengthen Christian identity through martyr narratives, Julian the Apostate’s policies instead aimed to limit the social structures that supported its continued expansion while restoring the worship of the Ancient Greek gods within the broader Greco-Roman religious tradition.

Unfortunately for his beliefs, that grand vision of such a revived Greco-Roman empire came to an abrupt end in the arid regions of Persia. During a military campaign, Julian was struck in the side by a spear, cutting his reign tragically short. Ancient sources and later traditions continue to debate the circumstances of his death, with some attributing the blow to a Persian soldier and others speculating—without evidence—that it may have come from within his own ranks. The true origin remains uncertain.

A well-known tradition holds that, as he lay dying, Julian the Apostate is said to have declared, “Thou hast conquered, O Galilean,” acknowledging the perceived triumph of Christianity. Whether or not he actually spoke these words, his brief reign left a lasting imprint on Roman and Western history. His efforts to restore the Ancient Greek gods within the Roman world continue to be discussed by historians as a striking moment in the empire’s religious transformation. Even in modern Greek cultural memory, echoes of this tension can still be felt in the broader contrast between the rational legacy of ancient philosophy and the spiritual tradition of Orthodox Christianity.

No other woman in Ancient Greek history inspired as much fascination, fear, and controversy as Olympias, the mother of Alexander the Great. She is described as passionate, intelligent, ruthless, and deeply religious. Enemies portrayed her as dangerous and manipulative, while supporters viewed her as a fiercely loyal mother and protector of Alexander’s destiny.

Behind the legends and accusations, however, stood a woman who exercised enormous political influence during one of history’s most transformative periods. Olympias shaped Alexander from childhood, influenced the succession crisis after Philip II’s death, and later played a decisive role in the violent struggles that followed Alexander’s empire.

Her presence loomed over Macedon for decades. Even after Alexander conquered much of the known world, Olympias continued to influence the royal court and the fate of the Argead dynasty.

Alexander the Great’s mother, Olympias, and her Molossian origins

Olympias came from Epirus, a Greek kingdom west of Macedonia. She belonged to the royal Molossian dynasty, which claimed descent from Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles. This heroic ancestry carried enormous symbolic value in the Greek world. Her original name may have been Polyxena or Myrtale. The biographer Plutarch suggests she later adopted the name Olympias after Philip achieved victory at the Olympic Games.

From an early age, Olympias displayed strong religious devotion.They initiated her with mystery cults and ecstatic rituals connected with Dionysus and the mysteries of the Cabeiri to whom she became a high-ranking priestess. These cults emphasized sacred initiation, hidden knowledge, and intense spiritual experiences. Her religious identity later became central to the legends surrounding Alexander’s birth.

The snakes and the divine birth of Alexander

Ancient authors repeatedly connect Olympias with snakes and mystery rituals. Plutarch wrote that Philip once saw a serpent lying beside Olympias while she slept. Legends claimed that she begot Alexander with Zeus through intercourse with snakes. According to later traditions, this event contributed to the belief that Zeus himself fathered Alexander.

These stories shaped Alexander’s image ever since childhood. Olympias appears to have encouraged the belief that her son possessed divine ancestry. Such ideas naturally fit within the heroic traditions of the Greek world in which exceptional rulers often claimed descent from gods. The symbolism of Zeus held enormous political importance. Alexander did not simply present himself as a king but increasingly viewed himself as a chosen figure with a cosmic mission. Of course, Olympias likely played a major role in nurturing this mindset.

Ancient religion did not sharply separate politics from divine legitimacy. A ruler with sacred ancestry possessed more potent authority and prestige. Olympias therefore strengthened Alexander’s position both psychologically and politically. The stories involving snakes also reflected the mystical atmosphere surrounding cults. Serpents symbolized rebirth, divine wisdom, chthonic forces, and sacred power in many Greek traditions. As a priestess connected with such cults, Olympias cultivated an aura of mystery that impressed supporters and frightened enemies.

Olympias’ relationship with Philip II, the father of Alexander the Great

The marriage between Olympias and Philip II began as a political alliance, yet tensions soon emerged between them. Philip married several women during his reign, partly for diplomatic reasons. However, these marriages threatened Alexander’s position as heir. Olympias fiercely defended her son’s claim to the throne and distrusted rival factions within the Macedonian court.

Conflict intensified after Philip married Cleopatra Eurydice, a Macedonian noblewoman. Her marriage resulted in the possibility of a fully Macedonian heir, which endangered Alexander’s succession. Plutarch describes a famous banquet confrontation during which insulted Alexander by implying doubts concerning his legitimacy. The quarrel severely damaged relations within the royal family.

Olympias soon withdrew from Macedon temporarily and returned to Epirus. Alexander also left for a period before reconciliation occurred. These events led to an atmosphere of suspicion and instability that surrounded Philip’s final years.

The assassination of Philip and Alexander’s accession

Philip II passed away in 336 BC after assassination during a public celebration at Aegae. His bodyguard, Pausanias, killed him before guards immediately cut the assassin down. The assassination remains one of antiquity’s great mysteries. Plutarch and the historian Arrian often suspected Olympias of involvement. Some even claimed she honored Pausanias afterward or placed a crown upon his corpse. Other traditions accuse Alexander indirectly as well.

No definitive evidence proves these accusations. However, Olympias clearly benefited politically from Philip’s death because Alexander immediately became king. She acted quickly afterward to eliminate threats against her son’s rule. The geographer Pausanias accuses her of orchestrating brutal acts against Cleopatra Eurydice and her child. Whether entirely accurate or exaggerated by hostile writers, these accounts reveal Olympias’ fierce determination to secure Alexander’s position. In the brutal world of Macedonian succession politics, hesitation often meant destruction.

Even after Alexander launched his campaigns into Asia, Olympias continued influencing Macedonian affairs from afar. Alexander maintained regular correspondence with her and respected her opinions deeply. Both Arrian and Plutarch suggested that Olympias frequently warned him about political rivals and court intrigues. At times, her intense personality resulted in tension with Antipater, whom Alexander left in charge of Macedon during the eastern campaigns. Their rivalry became one of the defining political conflicts of the period.

Olympias viewed herself not merely as the king’s mother but also as guardian of the Argead dynasty and protector of Alexander’s divine mission. Meanwhile, Alexander’s own behavior increasingly reflected the heroic and semi-divine identity cultivated since childhood. His visit to the oracle of Zeus-Ammon in Siwa of Egypt supported these beliefs further when the Egyptian priest proclaimed him as “child of Ammon.” The foundations of this worldview likely originated partly through Olympias’ influence, as previously mentioned.

The chaos after Alexander’s death

Alexander’s death in 323 BC plunged the empire into chaos. Without a clear successor, powerful generals fought for control over the vast territories he conquered. Olympias returned to political life aggressively during this turbulent period, supporting the rights of Alexander IV, Alexander’s young son by Roxana. Olympias viewed him as the legitimate continuation of the Argead dynasty.

In order to defend her grandson’s claim, she entered the brutal wars of the Successors. During this struggle, Olympias captured and executed Philip III Arrhidaeus and his wife Eurydice. These actions shocked many Macedonians and intensified divisions within the kingdom.

Nevertheless, Olympias believed she acted to preserve Alexander’s bloodline and royal legitimacy. Her enemies, however, saw only cruelty and vengeance.

The fall of Olympias

Cassander, one of the most powerful Successors, eventually marched against Olympias. Many Macedonians abandoned her cause as political exhaustion, and civil war consumed the kingdom. After siege and defeat, Olympias surrendered.

Cassander condemned her to death in 316 BC. Plutarch claims that soldiers initially hesitated to execute her because of her royal status and dominant personality. Eventually, however, relatives of her victims carried out the killing. With Olympias’ death, the final collapse of the Argead dynasty was all the more imminent. Soon afterward, Cassander eliminated Alexander IV and Roxana, as well, and thus ended the bloodline of Philip and Alexander.

Olympias remains one of antiquity’s most complex female figures, having shaped Alexander psychologically ever since childhood and having encouraged his belief in divine destiny. She defended his succession fiercely during critical political crises and later fought relentlessly to preserve the dynasty after his death. Without Olympias, Alexander’s rise may have unfolded quite differently.

At the same time, her actions contributed to the violence and instability that destroyed Macedon after Alexander’s empire fragmented. She therefore stands both as creator and destroyer: a queen, priestess, mother, and political strategist whose influence changed the ancient world forever.

Every day, thousands of Athenians and visitors pass through Michalakopoulou Avenue, one of the main arteries of central Athens. Yet few know the story of Andreas Michalakopoulos, the forgotten Greek Prime Minister and diplomatic genius whose name the avenue carries.

Who was the man behind the Michalakopoulos name?

Andreas Michalakopoulos was born in Patras in 1876 and went on to become one of the most important statesmen in modern Greek history. He was a man who helped redraw Greece’s borders, solved Athens’ water crisis, and brokered peace with Turkey at a time when Greece couldn’t have suffered more militarily.

Yet most Greeks today could not tell you a single thing about him. History has been unkind to Michalakopoulos, largely because he spent most of his career standing next to one of the most towering figures Greece has ever produced: Eleftherios Venizelos. That proximity was both his greatest role and the reason he is so rarely remembered—a blessing and a curse for a public figure like him. Michalakopoulos rose through the Liberal Party (Κόμμα των Φιλελευθέρων) ranks after 1910, holding portfolios in Economy, Agriculture, and Military Affairs under successive Venizelos governments.

He was not a man who craved the spotlight. He was a man who understood how government actually worked, and he was trusted with the levers of it accordingly—a true politician in the best definition of the term possible. When Venizelos went before the great powers of Europe to argue for a bigger Greece after the First World War, Michalakopoulos was beside him at the negotiating table. He participated in the long, tough diplomacy that produced both the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920 and the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, the two documents that first promised the unthinkable and then permanently fixed, without too heavy losses, the borders of the modern Greek state. Venizelos got 100% of the credit.

However, Michalakopoulos did much of the work. He became Prime Minister in October 1924, inheriting a country in a genuine, profound, and almost existential crisis. The Asia Minor Catastrophe of 1922 had sent over a million Greek refugees flooding into Greece in a matter of months. From dreams about the reinstatement of Byzantine glory, Greece woke up in ruins, literal and metaphorical. Athens had nearly doubled in population within just a few years, and the city’s ancient water infrastructure simply could not cope. Water was being sold from carts in the streets. Taps ran dry. For a capital city that had stood for thousands of years, it was an embarrassing and dangerous situation. Greece was on the brink of collapse.

Michalakopoulos wasted little time. In December 1924, his government signed a landmark contract with American engineering firm Ulen & Company and the Bank of Athens to construct the Marathon Dam. It was one of the largest infrastructure projects in Europe at the time. The Marathon Dam was a gravity dam built of the famous Pentelic marble—the same stone used to construct the Parthenon—rising 54 meters above the Haradros River outside of Athens. The project cost more than the entire National Bank of Greece and was funded with a $10 million loan. Yes, modern Greece and loans, this stereotypical love affair…

Construction ran from 1926 to 1929. The finished system delivered water to Athens through nearly 880 kilometers (547 miles) of new pipes and was inaugurated in 1931. The water that flows from Athenian taps today finds its roots in that contract and in that decision. Michalakopoulos never saw it completed. A military coup by General Theodoros Pangalos ended his government in June 1925, just months after the contract was signed.

But, thankfully, the work was done. He returned to government as Foreign Minister under Venizelos starting in 1928, and it was here that he made perhaps his most lasting contribution to the nation. Greece in the late 1920s was a country that had been through a lot. The Megali Idea, the great dream of a Greece stretching across the Aegean and into Anatolia, had collapsed spectacularly and catastrophically. The population exchange with Turkey had displaced more than a million people on each side. The two countries were locked in mutual suspicion and unresolved property disputes.

Michalakopoulos understood, more clearly than most, that Greece could not afford to stay that way. On October 30, 1930, he co-signed the Greek-Turkish Friendship Convention, also known as the Treaty of Ankara. He did that alongside Venizelos and Turkish Prime Minister İsmet İnönü. The treaty settled the border, resolved the property claims of the displaced populations, and established naval parity in the eastern Mediterranean.

It was a remarkable diplomatic achievement that helped lay the groundwork for the Balkan Pact of 1934 and brought a genuine, working peace between two nations that had spent generations at war. When Ioannis Metaxas declared his dictatorship on August 4, 1936, Michalakopoulos refused to go along with it. He had spent thirty years building democratic institutions from the inside. He spoke out against the regime and paid a heavy price for it. He was sent into internal exile on the island of Paros. He died on March 7, 1938, aged sixty-one.

Michalakopoulos’ legacy is a strange one: a man who brought water to a thirsty city, helped draw the map of modern Greece, made peace with its archenemy, and died in exile because he would not pretend that democracy was something you could simply switch off. Next time the traffic backs up on Odos Michalakopoulou in downtown Athens, take a moment to read the sign. The water in your glass and the borders of this nation have everything to do with the man it honors.

More than seven in ten property purchases in Greece in 2025 involved residential homes, with three-quarters of those sales concerning buildings over twenty years old, underscoring the country’s persistent shortage of new housing. The figures point to a structural imbalance in the Greek real estate market in which limited construction in recent years has failed to keep pace with demand.

As a result, buyers continue to turn to older properties, particularly in the country’s largest urban centers. Residential properties accounted for 74.8 percent of all property sales in 2025. Plots of land followed at 14.3 percent, agricultural land at 5.8 percent, and commercial properties at 5.1 percent.

The data comes from REMAX Greece, a real estate network, and is based on thousands of completed transactions recorded through its ninety offices and more than 1,200 agents nationwide.

Three-quarters of homes sold were over 20 years old

Homes more than twenty years old represented 75.6 percent of residential property sales across Greece. Newly-built homes, defined as properties up to five years old, accounted for just 12.3 percent of sales.

Properties aged six to ten years represented only 0.3 percent of transactions, while homes aged 11 to 15 years accounted for 2 percent. Properties aged 16 to 20 years made up 9.8 percent of residential sales.

The dominance of older housing reflects the limited availability of newer homes in the Greek market. Where newly built properties are available, however, they remain highly attractive to buyers because they offer modern energy efficiency standards and better meet contemporary living needs.

Athens reflects national trend

In Attica (Greater Athens), residential properties accounted for 85.3 percent of sales. Commercial properties and land plots each represented 7.2 percent.

Older housing stock was even more dominant in the capital region. Homes more than twenty years old made up 86.2 percent of residential sales in Attica, while newly built properties up to five years old represented only 3.3 percent.

Land purchases also gained ground in Attica. Plots and agricultural land combined rose by 1.8 percent year-on-year, indicating growing buyer interest in development opportunities amid the shortage of available modern housing.

Older homes drive Greece’s property market in Thessaloniki

A similar picture emerged in Thessaloniki, where residential properties represented 87.4 percent of total sales. Commercial properties followed at 8.7 percent. As in Athens, older homes dominated the market. Properties more than twenty years old accounted for 87 percent of residential sales in Thessaloniki, while newly-built homes represented just two percent.

The figures underline the depth of Greece’s housing supply challenge. Demand for residential property remains strong, but the limited availability of newly built homes continues to push buyers toward older stock across the country’s largest real estate markets.

Greek drivers display some of the most dangerous road behavior in Europe, with new findings showing that risky habits such as phone use, fatigue, alcohol-related driving, and low seatbelt compliance remain widespread among motorists, especially younger drivers.

According to the 16th Responsible Driving Barometer released by the VINCI Autoroutes Foundation, 66 percent of Greek drivers say they use their phones while driving, 41 percent admit to driving while severely fatigued, and 10 percent say they have driven after consuming alcohol.

Despite these behaviors, 97 percent of Greek drivers describe their own driving in positive terms. The contrast suggests that many motorists underestimate the risks they take behind the wheel, even when those risks are among the leading causes of serious crashes.

The survey, conducted by Ipsos BVA, polled 12,100 people across 11 European countries and highlighted a troubling gap between how Greek drivers see themselves and how they actually behave on the road.

Young drivers raise particular concern

The survey also points to alarming habits among younger drivers in Greece. Among those  aged 16 to 24, 48 percent say they drive without wearing a seatbelt, while 16 percent admit they occasionally drive under the influence of alcohol.

These figures indicate that road safety remains a serious cultural issue, particularly among younger motorists who may be more likely to normalize dangerous behavior such as not wearing a seatbelt, using a phone, or driving after drinking.

Road deaths show scale of Greece’s safety issue

The survey findings come at a time when Greece is also ranked among Europe’s five most dangerous countries for driving, according to data from the European Transport Safety Council.

Greece recorded 62 road deaths per one million residents in 2024, up from 60 per one million in 2023. While the increase may appear insginificant, it points to a wider road safety problem at a time when several other European countries are making progress in reducing traffic fatalities.

In the 2024 rankings, Greece placed fifth among the most dangerous European countries for road users. Serbia topped the list with 78 deaths per one million residents, followed by Romania with 77, Bulgaria with 74, Croatia with 64, and Greece with 62.

Greece has not historically been at the very top of Europe’s road-death rankings, but its current position shows that road safety remains a persistent national challenge. The country’s performance is also concerning because Croatia, which remains just above Greece in the ranking, has shown signs of improvement.

AI cameras reveal Greek drivers’ risky habits in Athens

Recent data from AI-powered traffic cameras in Athens adds further evidence that risky driving behavior remains widespread.

Eight pilot AI traffic cameras installed in the Greater Athens area have already recorded thousands of serious violations. In roughly one month, four of the cameras detected 39,543 major offenses, including running red lights, using a mobile phone while driving, and exceeding speed limits.

The violations were recorded at some of Athens’ busiest locations, including Syntagma Square and Syngrou Avenue. Separate data showed that on Syngrou Avenue alone, more than ten thousand violations related to seatbelt use and mobile phones were recorded between December 25 and January 28, along with more than 1,500 speeding violations.

In ancient Greece, the experiences of women varied dramatically from Athens to Sparta. While the prevailing image often portrays women as largely “invisible” in public life, a closer examination reveals a striking contrast between the lives of Athenian and Spartan women.

As archaeologist Evi Pini emphasized in speaking recently to the Athens-Macedonia News Agency (AMNA), it is crucial to avoid broad generalizations about women in ancient Greece, given the vast differences across regions and centuries.

Pini’s research, which focuses on the classical period in Athens and Sparta, illuminates how these two prominent societies treated women in fundamentally distinct ways, revealing that invisibility was far from a universal reality.

Women in ancient Athens: The “invisibles of history”

For the most part, Athenian society aimed for women to be unseen and unheard. The ideal Athenian woman was confined to the home, managing the household and raising legitimate children. Their public presence was minimal, and their lives were largely dictated by their male relatives.

As Pini notes, there were specific primary obstacles women in ancient Athens confronted, as indicated below.

Limited legal rights

Athenian women had no legal right to inherit property directly. Their dowry, while providing some security in case of divorce, remained largely under the control of their husband or father.

If a woman was the sole heir to her father’s property (an epikleros kore), she was legally obligated to marry her closest male relative, even if it meant divorcing her current husband. This highlights a system in which women were often pawns in the preservation of family property and lineage.

Marriage and love

Conventional wisdom, often derived from ancient male writers, suggests that Athenian marriages were devoid of emotional connection, serving primarily the purpose of procreation. Love was supposedly reserved for concubines and courtesans.

However, Pini challenges this stereotype, pointing out the economic impracticality for most men in maintaining multiple partners and citing funerary monuments as evidence of genuine affection between spouses.

High mortality in childbirth

Childbirth posed a significant danger for women, contributing to high female mortality rates. This was a grim reality for women across ancient societies, including Athens.

Sole area of distinction

The primary public role for Athenian women was in priesthood. Their participation in religious ceremonies and rituals was crucial. Beyond this, opportunities for distinction were virtually nonexistent.

Women in ancient Athens and Sparta: A striking contrast

According to Greek archaeologists, in stark contrast to Athens, Spartan society granted women a much more prominent and respected position.

While not entirely equal to men, their social status, legal rights, and public recognition were remarkably progressive for the time.

High social status and public honor

Spartan women, especially mothers, held high social standing and were not shy about expressing their opinions publicly. They were even honored with public praise, a stark difference from the Athenian ideal of female silence.

Numerous “Lakaean aphorisms” attributed to Spartan women attest to their wit and influence.

Economic power and inheritance

Spartan women possessed significant economic power. Unlike their Athenian counterparts, they could inherit property from their parents and manage it independently. Due to high male mortality in warfare, Spartan women controlled approximately two-fifths of the land by the 4th century BC.

This economic independence was so unusual that other Greeks, including Aristotle, reportedly viewed Spartans as “womanizers” because of it, misinterpreting their women’s power.

Physical education and health

Spartans prioritized the physical training of girls from a young age, believing that strong bodies would lead to healthier offspring who could better cope with the rigors of childbirth.

They also married their daughters off at an older age (18-20) than Athenians (15-16), considering physical maturity beneficial for motherhood.

Absence of dowry and adultery laws

Spartan law prohibited dowries, ensuring that even less fortunate girls could marry. Furthermore, the concept of adultery as a punishable offense largely didn’t exist in the same way as in Athens.

Consensual extramarital relations, often for the purpose of procreation and to ensure strong offspring for the state, were acceptable and not kept secret. While secret affairs might have occurred, they didn’t lead to the severe penalties and social ostracism faced by Athenian women caught committing adultery.

“Secret” weddings

Spartan weddings involved a ritualistic “secret abduction” of the bride, a haircut, and disguise.

While Plutarch offered a practical, though likely inaccurate, explanation for these “secret” marriages (testing for offspring), Pini suggests they were more likely ancient customs signifying a transition from one state to another, a young woman “disappearing” to reappear as a married woman with a new identity.

Distinction in arts and philosophy

Beyond their domestic roles, Spartan women, alongside women from other Dorian and Aeolian cities and colonies, could achieve distinction as poets and philosophers.

Stereotypes about women in ancient Athens and Sparta to break down

Evi Pini’s insights reveal several crucial stereotypes pertaining to women in Greek antiquity that need to be challenged, as indicated below.

The monolithic “ancient Greek woman”

It’s a significant oversimplification to generalize about “women in antiquity.” The vast differences between Athenian and Spartan societies, among others, demonstrate the diverse realities of women’s lives across different regions and periods. The notion of a single, universal experience for women in ancient Greece is inaccurate.

Absence of marital love

The stereotype that emotional bonds were absent in Athenian marriages, with love reserved for concubines and courtesans, is largely unfounded. Economic realities for most Athenians would have made supporting multiple partners impossible.

Furthermore, evidence from funerary monuments suggests genuine affection and grief existed between spouses.

Universal invisibility

While Athenian women were indeed largely “invisible” in public life, Spartan women were far from it.

Their economic power, social standing, and public voice demonstrate that invisibility was not a universal experience for women in all Greek societies.

Adultery as a universal sin

The draconian Athenian laws surrounding adultery, including the husband’s right to kill the adulterer, are often projected onto all of Greek antiquity.

Sparta’s approach, where consensual extramarital relations for procreation were accepted and “adultery” as a concept barely existed, shows a dramatically different cultural norm.

By examining the nuances of different Greek city-states, particularly the contrasting experiences of Athenian and Spartan women, we gain a much richer and more accurate understanding of women’s roles, rights, and visibility in Greek antiquity, dismantling simplistic and often misleading generalizations.

(With information from AMNA)

Related: What Did Everyday Life in Ancient Athens Really Look Like?