The country known today as Iran extends from the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean in the south to the border of Turkey and Turkmenistan in the north. The territory of Iran is equivalent to much of the ancient Persian Empire. In the southwest part of Iran was the historic region of Persis, or Persia proper, and Iran was called “Persia” until the twentieth century. Why did it have that name, and where did it come from?

The land of Persis, or Persia, in modern-day Iran

There is an area in modern-day Iran, the Fars Province, sometimes written as “Pars.” This province occupies most of the immediate region on the eastern side of the Persian Gulf.

This region is roughly equivalent to the ancient land of Persis. Scholars also refer to this as Persia proper. This was the land of the ancient Persians. They probably resided in this land for a few centuries before they managed to forge an empire for themselves.

Therefore, even after forming a large empire, this region was still distinctly known as Persis. This is where the Fars Province derives its name. Similarly, the Babylonia region in Iraq remained a distinct part of Mesopotamia even after its people established the Babylonian Empire, which encompassed much of the Fertile Crescent.

Where does the name ‘Persia’ come from?

The place name ‘Persia’ originates from the name that the ancient Persians gave to their land, which in ancient Persian was ‘Parsa’. The Greeks adapted this into ‘Persis’, and later, the Romans adapted the Greek term into ‘Persia’.

The Persians gave the name ‘Parsa’ to their land (roughly the Fars Province), apparently after themselves, whom they also called ‘Parsa’. This was their native ethnonym.

Partially based on ancient Assyrian records, many scholars believe that the Persians migrated into Persia from the north. The earliest ancient inscriptions which refer to Persia, or Parsa, in the Fars Province of southwestern Iran date to approximately the middle of the first millennium BCE.

On the other hand, around 900 BCE, Assyrian inscriptions refer to a location called Parsua, much further north. The similarities between ‘Parsua’ and ‘Parsa’ are strong, leading many scholars to believe that they are different forms of the same word.

Perhaps due to constant Assyrian attacks, the Persians may have migrated south from Parsua, near Armenia, all the way to the Fars Province next to the Persian Gulf. If so, then during their early history, the Persians may have been called the Parsuash.

Perseus and Perses in Greek Mythology

In Greek mythology, Perseus was the legendary founder of the Perseid dynasty and one of the greatest heroes before the age of Heracles, alongside figures like Cadmus and Bellerophon. He is best known for slaying the Gorgon Medusa on behalf of King Polydectes and for rescuing Andromeda from the sea monster Cetus.

According to Greek tradition, Perseus and Andromeda had a son named Perses. He came to be regarded as the forefather of the Persian people. According to Herodotus, Xerxes invoked this ancestral link in an effort to gain the support of the Argives during his campaign in Greece, though his attempt was unsuccessful.

First Alcibiades, a dialogue from the late 4th century BC attributed to Plato, implies that one of Perses’ descendants was Achaemenes, the traditional forefather of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persian kings.

The empire of Persia, which ruled from Iran

Of course, the Fars Province is only a small part of Iran. So, why was Iran as a whole called Persia in ancient times, and as recently as the twentieth century? The reason ultimately goes back more than two and a half millennia.

King Cyrus of the Persians carved out an enormous empire in the sixth century BCE. This took in all of present-day Iran, Iraq, Syria, Israel, and much more, bringing down three empires in the process. For a time, contemporary Greek writers used ‘Persia’ to refer to the entire empire.

In the late fourth century BCE, Alexander the Great defeated and conquered the Persian Empire. This ended Persian control over everything apart from the Fars Province. How, then, did the name ‘Persia’ continue to be applied to the entire region of modern-day Iran?

Persis regains its strength

The answer partially goes back to the third century CE. At that time, Ardashir I, a king of Persis, founded the Sasanian Empire. This reconquered large portions of the former Persian Empire of King Cyrus.

Eventually, in the seventh century, the Muslims conquered all of the territory of the king of Persis. Nevertheless, by this time, the term ‘Persia’ had come to be commonly used for that entire region. Furthermore, the inhabitants continued holding a distinct cultural identity, in contrast to the surrounding area.

The term ‘Persia’ continued to be used even after the Muslim conquest. This is why the country of Iran was formerly called Persia in ancient times, and the name persists in the modern world.

It was in 480 BC during the second Persian invasion of Greece, when King Leonidas of Sparta ahead of the legendary Battle of Thermopylae responded by the phrase “Molon Lave” (‘Come and Take Them’ in ancient Greek) to Persian King Xerxes’ demand that the Spartan army lay down their weapons and surrender to his army. The outnumbered Greeks were eventually annihilated, though they held Thermopylae for three days and inflicted serious damage to the Persians, while delaying them from reaching Athens.

That’s how the story ended back then. But little did King Leonidas know that over 2,500 years later, his “Molon Lave” phrase (also spelled “Molon Labe” by many) would not only become immortalized through the centuries but moreover, it would thrive as a global marketing tool -linked to the sale of weapons, wine, olive oil, expensive watches and even cigars.

King Leonidas I reigned the ancient city-state of Sparta, a warrior society, from 489 to 480 BC. Subjected to military drills since early manhood, the Spartans had become one of the most feared and formidable military forces in the ancient Greek world, attaining legendary status in their wars against Persia. At the height of Sparta’s power, between the 6th and 4th centuries BC, according to Peter Connolly, a British historian and the scholar of the ancient world, other Greeks commonly accepted that “one Spartan was worth several men of any other state.”

“The appeal of Molon Lave comes from its Spartan origins,” Effie Delimarkos-Fletcher, a Greek-American communications expert and marketing strategist tells Greek Reporter. “Spartans themselves have come to symbolize power, strength, resolve, and defiance, which was catapulted into the mainstream with the debut movie of ‘300.’ As a result, aligning with the phrase “Molon Lave” is a distinct way for a brand to signal strength and prowess in an area worth defending.”

Moreover, there are few other phrases like “Molon Lave,” where two single, short words are able to convey all that, perhaps the most famous military last stand of all time, embodies -defiance, strength and resolve. Spartans were expected to be men of few words, famous for using “laconic phrases,” named after Laconia, the region of Greece, including the city of Sparta, whose ancient inhabitants had a reputation for verbal austerity. A laconic phrase was used for efficiency (as during military training and operations), for emphasis or to deflate a pompous speaker.

Military, the industry where Molon Lave has the largest appeal as a brand

From tactical patches and other military paraphernalia sold online, to assault rifles sold in stores across the United States, the phrase “Molon Lave” graces thousands of military-related products.

According to Delimarkos-Fletcher, Molon Lave and its English translation “Come and Take Them” has been present in the country’s early DNA as it is said to have been used as far back as the Revolutionary War. Even so, it is better known for its connection to the Texas Revolutionary War, when the phrase was stitched onto a flag that has come to be associated with the defiant spirit of the state. In more recent times, many U.S.-based militia groups and paramilitary organizations have taken the phrase “Molon Lave,” and often the depiction of a Spartan helmet, signaling defiance for gun regulations.

“Because Molon Lave has been adopted by militia-type groups in the United States, securing the Molon Lave trademark is done by companies looking to appeal to that target,” Delimarkos-Fletcher says.

And that’s exactly what at least one US.-based company had done. A short Greek Reporter investigation revealed that, while there are hundreds of knives and weapons with the phrase “Molon Lave” appearing on them in different variations, in 2015 this one company has gone as far as to apply for and successfully register a year later a trademark for the original Molon Lave phrase in Greek (ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ) for one of its knives selection. The company, advertises the knives on its website by stating “It takes a bold individual to make a statement of defiance like ‘Come and Take Them (Molon Labe),’ we provide the knives that re-enforce the bravado.”

But can a company apply and secure a trademark for the use of a common, ancient phrase like Molon Lave, that seems almost free for anyone to use?

According to Pamela Koslyn, a Los Angeles-based attorney specializing in intellectual property law, U.S. legislation allows a company to successfully apply for a trademark for a brand new phrase, or an “ancient” phrase or an invented word/phrase, with the age and origin of the phrase being irrelevant.

“A trademark isn’t a monopoly on a phrase, it’s a source identifier of some phrase associated with some goods or services. Like knives. Or olive oil. Or wine. These are all actual “live or pending marks of Molon Lave…There’s also a Chinese textile seller called Molon Lave,” Koslyn tells Greek Reporter. “If a user has a registered trademark on a phrase in a particular class, e.g. knives, that means the user own the exclusive right to use their mark in association with their goods or services and can theoretically successfully sue and enjoin any competitor who infringes those rights by using the same or confusingly similar mark for the same or confusingly similar goods or services.”

Still, Koslyn notes, that one in two trademark applications to the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) fail not only because they’re not viable or available but moreover because of the complexity of the law and the time needed to find out if an application has been approved by USPTO -a process that could take months if not years.

The famous ancient Greek phrase many want to own

But few actually register the phrase in order to enhance their branding or make their products stand out more. Given the enormous competition among companies to win the hearts of consumers, proper branding and marketing could mean the difference between life and death for a company. And given its global fame, that’s exactly what “Molon Lave” does.

Nowhere is this more obvious than in the United States, the beating heart of global consumerism. A family-owned farm winery in Virginia was established in 2009 under the name “Molon Lave.” Aside from informing its customers that it also produces “kokkineli,” a traditional Greek style rose, the winery fully explains on its website the origins of its name, noting that “‘Molon Lave’ is a phrase that has inspired throughout the centuries a sense of dignity and pride, and a unique perception of life.”

Another Florida-based company named “Molon Labe” is selling high-quality cigars, spirits and coffee, as with most other businesses, also using a Spartan helmet on its logo. Moreover, the cigars are wrapped in paper bearing the phrase in Greek. The company on its website gives no explanation as to why it chose the specific name.

Greek Reporter’s investigation also found a watch company with the name “Molon Labe” based in the UK, selling handmade, military watches inspired by the phrase, with some having a price tag of over $1,500. There’s also a global security company named “Molon Lave,” an information technology service activity company in the UK and a gym in Cyprus, featuring on its premises the bust of a muscular Spartan soldier alongside the “Molon Lave” phrase, which is showcased in ancient Greek type. The list goes on.

With a fortitude reminiscent of the very people it once represented, the phrase “Molon Lave” survived to this day as one of the few expressions that so efficiently evoke an immediate connection not only to power but also to Greece.

It is no wonder the phrase has also been adopted as the name of a “small, Greek authentic restaurant” in Ontario, Canada, which on its website says that it’s “based on the Spartan epic saying Molon Lave, which means ‘Come and Get Them,'” and has a mission “to celebrate and share Greek cuisine and culture.”

At the same time, a thriving Greek olive oil brand named “Molon Lave” based in Sparta, the place where King Leonidas and his Spartan warriors once lived, is probably one of the more successful examples using the phrase as a marketing tool.

Delimarkos-Fletcher says many using the phrase may not even know its true origins so it is refreshing to see Greek-related businesses reclaiming Molon Lave as they “seek to evoke a connection to the best known story of Greek strength and prowess.”

“Other brands are just using ‘Molon Lave’ as shorthand for having something powerful enough that others want for their own,” Delimarkos-Fletcher tells Greek Reporter.

 

During his campaigns, Alexander the Great relied on a variety of military units for tactical success; the most prestigious of these units were the Companions, the elite mounted shock cavalry of the Macedonian army.

The Companion Cavalry, known in Greek as the Hetairoi (ἑταῖροι), were capable of delivering devastating charges against massed infantry formations. Their timely charges often proved decisive at crucial points during a battle and they were an invaluable tool that complimented Alexander’s preference for hammer and anvil tactics.

The Companion cavalry was just one piece of the puzzle that constituted the revolutionary combined arms warfare model employed by the ancient Macedonian army. However, as the king’s elite mounted warriors and bodyguards, they were often closest to Alexander during battle and are certainly among the most prestigious military units to have left their mark on the history books.

Organization of the Companion cavalry

The Companions were the Hetairoi of the king and the most senior unit in the ancient Macedonian army. As such, they were customarily deployed in the place of honor on the right wing of the army.

Most of the Companions would have been of noble birth, able to afford a horse and the necessary equipment. In fact, many of the Companions were close friends or allies of the king, so membership in the unit offered an opportunity for social and political status.

According to an academic paper authored by British historian Peter Brunt appearing in The Journal of Hellenic Studies, the Companions during Alexander and Philip II’s time were organized into eight squadrons called ilai. Each ile consisted of about 200 to 300 horsemen. One of the squadrons, called the agema, was the royal squadron and would usually be led in person by the king.

Equipment

For armor, a member of the Companion cavalry would have worn either a linothorax or a muscle cuirass to protect the torso. To protect the head, a Boeotian helmet was typically worn, chosen for the unobstructed vision it granted its wearer.

The primary armament of a Companion was the xyston, a long thrusting spear that was between 3.5 to 4.25 m (11 to 14 ft) long. Historians believe that it was usually wielded with two hands and that it could be held with an overhead or underarm grip depending on the situation.

The Companion cavalry carried swords as secondary weapons. They had two to choose from: the kopis and xiphos. The kopis was arguably the better choice for mounted soldiers because the curved single edge and weight distribution made it an excellent weapon for powerful chopping strikes, particularly against infantrymen who would have stood below a mounted warrior.

The ancient Greek soldier and writer Xenophon thought as much and wrote: “I recommend a kopis rather than a xiphos, because from the height of a horse’s back the cut of a machaira will serve you better than the thrust of a xiphos”.

Tactics of the Companion Cavalry

The Companion cavalry was most effectively used in conjunction with the other units of the Macedonian army. The infantry, whose main component was the pike phalanx, would act as the anvil by holding the main enemy force in place, whilst the Companion cavalry would act as the hammer, circling behind the enemy to charge in the flanks or rear – hence, the hammer and anvil.

The Companions played crucial roles in battles such as Chaeronea, where the renowned Sacred Band met their defeat, the Battle of Granicus in 334 BC, the Battle of Issus in 333 BC, and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.

The Companion cavalry often charged the enemy in the “flying wedge” formation designed to maximize the impact of the charge. According to the Greek historian Arrian, this formation was first used by the Scythians. Philip II later adopted the formation from them or the Thracians.

Cleopatra was not just a famed Greek queen of Ancient Egypt but was also known for her love of parties. She even created her own secret drinking club.

The famous ancient ruler became well known during her time for her intellect and wit and was often described as incredibly seductive and persuasive. These qualities made her all the more mysterious throughout the centuries.

She is now a popular figure in media, literature, and art, and her enchanting qualities, romantic relationships, and beauty are of particular interest to people.

Perhaps the most surprising fact about Cleopatra, who was a strategic and often cutthroat ruler, is that she was quite the reveler.

Cleopatra maintained a relationship with Roman leader Mark Antony and even gave birth to his twins, Alexander Helios, which means sun, and Cleopatra Selene, which means moon, shortly after Antony returned to Rome in 40 BC.

While Antony was living in Egypt with Cleopatra, despite being married in Rome, the pair would throw parties and were known to appreciate a good drink.

Cleopatra formed a secret drinking club, played pranks

In fact, Cleopatra and Antony created their own secret drinking club called “The Inimitable Livers,” ostensibly as a group to honor the god Dionysus but likely to drink and revel.

In 41 BC, the couple formed the group, which included nightly feasts and debauchery, as well as the consumption of copious amounts of alcohol.

Along with these drinking parties, Antony and Cleopatra were known to roam around the streets of Alexandria, the urban center of ancient Egypt, wearing disguises and pulling pranks on locals.

Cleopatra generally loved joking around and even pranked her Roman lover. According to Pliny the Elder, Cleopatra once bet Antony that she could spend 10,000,000 sesterces, which is likely equivalent to over $10 million today on one dinner alone.

Antony balked at the preposterous idea and agreed to the bet, believing that spending such a massive sum on one dinner was impossible.

Cleopatra and Antony then went to dine together, and the couple was served a completely normal meal which definitely wasn’t worth such a sum.

As the meal was ending, Antony was beginning to believe he had won the bet. Cleopatra, however, called one of her servants over and asked for a cup filled with strong vinegar.

Once the servant brought the vinegar to the queen, Cleopatra removed one of her massive pearl earrings from her ear and dropped the precious earring into the cup.

The pearl, which was worth a huge amount of money, then began to dissolve in the vinegar solution. After it was fully dissolved, Cleopatra drank the solution.

Cleopatra VII Philopater ruled over Ancient Egypt from 51 to 30 BC and was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. After her death, the Roman Empire took control of the country.

The Ptolemaic Dynasty was formed by Ptolemy I Soter, a Greek general in Alexander the Great’s army, in 305 BC. Although located in Egypt, the dynasty that Ptolemy established remained incredibly Greek.

Cleopatra, a direct descendant of Ptolemy, was the first Ptolemaic ruler to learn the Egyptian language, as all those before her spoke only Greek. She was also believed to have spoken Ethiopian, Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic, Syriac, Median, Parthian, and Latin.

The name Cleopatra comes from the Ancient Greek words κλέος (kléos), meaning “glory,” and πατήρ (pater), meaning “father,” which means “glory of her father.”

The ancient Greeks used to make a wide variety of breads, as they considered it to be of great importance in their eating habits.

Wheat, considered a gift from the goddess Demeter, was highly valued by the Greeks, who particularly preferred the hulled varieties. Barley, however, thrived in larger regions of mainland Greece. The varieties of wheat and barley with hulls had to be dried to separate the grain before they could be ground. Most Greeks, however, even in areas where wheat cultivation was economically unprofitable, were fond of wheat bread.

Bread made from hulled barley and porridge formed the basis of the ancient Greeks’ diet. The bread was enriched with olive oil and flavored with herbs, spices or honey.

Athenian bread was renowned for its excellent quality and was a source of pride for the Athenians, who imported wheat as the soil of Attica was unsuitable for its cultivation. Thearion, an Athenian of the 5th century BCE, had the honor of being considered the inventor of bakery ovens, and probably of the first bakeries.

Plato mentions Thearion the baker as one of the three people who “were the best caretakers of the human body.” The other two were Mithaecus, a Sicilian, the first known cookbook writer, and Sarambus, a famous wine maker.

The ancient Greeks showed great ingenuity and skill in the art of baking. Athenaeus cites many serious studies on the subject and lists over seventy different types of bread.

Breads were distinguished according to the grain used in their preparation: wheat, rye, millet and spelt. The last three were used only out of necessity, as everyone preferred wheat.

There was bread made from various types of flour: white bread made from finely sifted flour, black bread made from wholemeal flour, which was healthier. Nevertheless, ancient Greeks preferred white bread, because they considered it more refined and better tasting.

Bread was leavened with or without yeast and could be differentiated according to the baking method: oven bread, bread baked on embers or in a pan over the fire into which they put a filling and then dipped it in wine. Delicious, if we believe the praises of the poets: “bread spread from embers, a soft and delightful combination.” Also, some baked the dough on a spit.

The various liquids, fats and spices added to the flour could vary the density and taste of the bread. Wine, milk, cheese and honey, separately or combined in some way, as liquids, oil, ghee or lard as fats, but also poppy seeds, sesame and linseed are most often mentioned as spices.

Finally, the bread would be filled with various types of cheese, raisins and other nuts, sweet or savory ingredients. The bread was often served as a plate, on which meat or fish was placed.

Bread history and stories

The staples of the ancient Greeks were bread, vegetables, cheese and olives. In the Mycenaean era, each house made its own bread and was equipped with its own hand-operated mill which turned wheat into flour.

Bread was kneaded and baked in homes, seasoned with sea salt for better taste.

In the Great Dionysia festivals, participants brought with them baskets containing wine, water and bread, which was needed for the sacrificial offerings. Ancient texts show that the Greeks offered bread to the gods, which they called the Gods’ Breads (Θειαγόνους Άρτους).

In the temple of Demeter in Eleusis, during the Thesmophoria feast, a large loaf of bread was offered to the goddess. The festival got its name Megalartia (meaning large bread) from the bread offering.

There was fierce competition among ancient Greek cities for which one produced the best bread. Athens boasted of Thearion, its best baker, whose name was found in the writings of many authors.

At weddings in ancient Macedonia, the bride’s parents cut the bread in two and the future husband tasted both portions. The custom was followed at the wedding of Alexander the Great to Roxane.

In ancient times, Cyprus was one of the granaries of the Greek world. According to Pliny, the wheat of Cyprus produced a famous brownish-yellow bread.

According to Diogenes Laertius, the smell of fresh, warm bread kept the wise man Democritus alive for three days so that his sister could take part in the Thesmophoria festival, in honor of Demeter. Thus, Democritus “hosted death in his house for three days and treated him to fresh, warm bread.”

Hippocrates mentions various types of bread made from wheat flour, sifted or not, with or without leaven, with bran, with bulgur, with honey and cheese, oil, poppy seeds and sesame seeds.

In the German Bread Museum in the city of Ulm, the most beautiful exhibits are four Greek figurines with female figures from the 5th century BCE, originating from Boeotia. The figurines depict the grinding of wheat in a mortar, the shaping of dough, the baking of bread, and the loaves ready for sale and eating.

In Rome, bread became popular and in 500 BCE, when the well-off Romans insisted on expensive white bread. Bread also played an important role in Roman weddings. In ancient Roman wedding ceremonies, the two families that were joining ate bread together.

Types of ancient Greek breads

There were at least 72 types of ancient Greek breads, named after the added ingredients used or the kneading, preparation method or baking procedure. Several of them are still made today in slight variations.

Alifatitis (Αλιφατίτης): a well-known bread made with added oil. It also contained animal fats. Similar to today’s puff pastry made with butter, a bread recipe of the ancient Greeks according to Larousse Gastronomique encyclopedia.

Artolaganon or laganon (Αρτολάγανον or λάγανον): a flavored bread with the dough rolled out thinly like a small pita and fried in oil. Artolaganon was the ancestor of today’s lagana which Greeks eat on Clean Monday. It was made with good quality flour.

Atabyritis (Αταβυρίτης): a round-shaped bread of the ancient Greeks that had a lot of crumb, and was particularly nutritious and fattening.

Vlomiaios bread (Βλωμιαίος άρτος): a ​​bread with notches to make it easier to divide into pieces. Vlomiaios bread was usually octavlomos, that is, divided into eight pieces (vlomos: a small piece of bread).

Egrides (Εγκρίδες): made with soft dough like pancakes that was dipped in oil and honey.

Thridakini (Θριδακίνη): bread with the dough mixed with wild lettuce.

Plytos or Vasinias (Πλυτός or Βασυνίας): boiled bread. When boiled, it floats in the water. It is made in Crete (boiled buns) and is the ancestor of the Jewish bagel. There are mentions  of this bread offering to goddess Iris on Delos island.

Krivanitis (Κριβανίτης): bread baked in a krivanos, that is, in a mobile clay oven.

Obelias (Οβελίας): it got this name because it was baked in special molds, the “obelisks” (spits) and because it was sold for an obol (όβολο), a small value coin.

Chondritis (Χονδρίτης): bread made from coarsely ground cereals.

Paxamas (Παξαμάς): a type of hard rusk. The name belongs to the baker (Paxamos) who had introduced it. The rusk was baked twice.

Plakountas (Πλακοῦς): was a sweet that had similarities to the modern cheesecake-type dessert. The sweet consisted of several layers of dough filled with honey and soft cheese. Its main ingredients were flour, cheese and honey. The dough of the plakountas was enriched with milk, fat, herbs and spices.

Pyritis bread (Πυρίτης): hulled wheat bread, from the ancient Greek word πυρός meaning the heart of the wheat seed.

Streptikios (Στρεπτίκιος): bread kneaded with milk, oil and honey. It was prepared by twisting the dough with the shape of the Easter tsoureki.

Hairstyles in Ancient Greece were one of the most significant identifiers of individuals, as they denoted social status and strength. They were also tied to rites of passage and religious rituals.

The hair on one’s head was so particularly valuable to ancient Greeks that it was worthy of its own unique term, being referred to as the kόme (κόμη), and people of the time meticulously cared for it, as they believed it was pivotal to one’s personality and reflected an individual’s social beliefs.

Hairstyles were an essential means of expressing one’s identity. The length and texture—long or short with loose waves or tight curls—was distinctively Greek and contrasted sharply with portrayals of non-Greeks. They were important in that they were a way for people to recognize each other and communicate their place within society.

Hair rituals, such as growing and cutting hair for the purpose of honoring deities, were complex and multi-layered. They needed to account for family status, gender, age, social class, transition points, and cult practices, as well as associations and organizations to which one belonged.

Heroes such as Achilles and Menelaus were portrayed by Homer with blond hair (xanthos), leading many men to lighten their own hair in an effort to resemble them.  To do so, they relied on soaps and alkaline bleaches imported from Phoenicia. Some dyed their hair with a mixture of apple-scented yellow flowers and pollen, potassium salts, and even gold powder.

However, in Homeric and Classical Greek, xanthos (Greek: ξανθός) referred to light-colored hair more broadly and did not exclusively mean “blonde” in the modern Northern European sense. Its meaning was more flexible, often encompassing shades like golden, reddish-gold, or light brown.

Hairstyle depictions in sculptures and paintings

Much of what we know about hairstyles in Ancient Greece stems from depictions of literary works and art, such as sculptures, paintings, amphorae, and other types of vessels. In general, women are nearly always presented with long hair. Slave women, on the other hand, had short hair for hygienic reasons as well as to allow others to socially discriminate between them.

Warriors on amphorae are typically portrayed with pointed beards and long hair while their squires are usually beardless with long, curly hair, and lyre-players have long hair tied back in a bun with a hairband. In a bronze statuette of Apollo, adult men are pictured with beards and somewhat long hair whereas the younger men have no facial hair at all. What marked barbarians, on the other hand, was a moustache with no beard.

Generally speaking, there was a gradual change of style in depictions of men on sculptures and vases from more elaborate to simpler ones. On the other hand, women appeared in works of art donning a variety of ornamental kerchiefs, including pretty bands such as a type of sling known as the “sphendone” (σφενδόνη) due to its shape. A large stamnos, a type of large vase used for serving and storing liquids, depicts groups of women dressed in Ionic and Doric chitons (types of Greek tunics) with various sorts of headdresses.

In literature, the oldest accounts of hairstyles in Ancient Greece are to be found in the works of Homer in which one encounters the dedicating of hair to deities and the dead for the first time ever. This further attests to the importance ancient Greeks placed on hair. In Homer’s Iliad, Book 23, Achilles dedicates his hair to his dead friend Patroclus, for example, in an act that symbolizes his grief for his best friend who has passed away as well as his devotion to their friendship.

Ancient Greek hairstyles through the centuries

Paintings in the palaces and pottery of the Minoan period (c. 3000 and 1100 BC) show dancers with shoulder-length black hair. In Aegean art, men are depicted with single or double plaits, and Homer’s heroes (c. 800 BC) had such hairstyles, as well, as did warriors at the battle of Marathon (490 BC).

The most common hair adornment for women was a type of hairnet or coif made of net work known as a “kekryphalos” in Greek—otherwise also called a caul or “coif of network.” It was worn during the day and at night through to the Classical Period, and Homer made mention of these hairnets, which were frequently made of gold threads or silk, as Pausanias writes.

Overall, during the Archaic Period (c. 1100 to 480 BC), the kouros, the free-standing statues depicting male youth, had long, finely braided, shoulder-length hair at the very least. The maidens (kόre) had numerous braids and oftentimes also donned a coronet. Towards the end of the particular period, women were portrayed with their hair tied back and into a bun, known as the “knidian hairstyle,” named after the Knidian Aphrodite, a statue by Praxiteles of the 4th century BC.

It was in the mid-5th century BC when males began appearing with shorter hair in Greek artwork, and at the beginning of the Classical Period (c. 480 to 323 BC), they were shown with short, neatly trimmed hair. Modern historians attribute the trend towards shorter hairstyles in Ancient Greece to the rising popularity of sports, as athletes had to have their ears free and their hair fixed in place, possibly with hair oil. A good example is the famous Discobolus statue by Myron (c. 460-450 BC).

Alexander the Great’s appearance—clean-shaven (unlike his father) with wind-swept locks combed back from a central part—was a tribute to the importance of youth and was subsequently adopted by other Greek kings. None of his Diadochi appeared with a beard on coinage, statues, or works of art. After Alexander the Great, it became typical for rulers to refrain from having facial hair for several centuries. This was also true of Roman emperors.

In the Archaeological Museum of Amfissa, over eight hundred miniature figurines of 3rd and 2nd century BC females are exhibited. Their hairstyles are particularly interesting, as bronze and golden spirals were used for fastening and decorating the hair. During the Hellenistic period, hairstyles became quite complex, and some of these can be seen on the figurines as well. Knidian hairdressing continued to be especially popular, but from 250 BC onwards, small curls were left hanging unfastened around the nape of the neck.

Hair rituals of the ancient Greeks

In archaic times, the ancient Greeks wore their hair long and were thus consistently referred to as long-and-thick-haired Achaeans (Greek: καρηκομόωντες Ἀχαιοί) in Homer’s works. This was a hairstyling practice that was adopted and preserved by the Spartans for centuries.

Plutarch writes that Spartan boys had their hair trimmed quite short. As soon as they reached puberty, however, they let it grow out. The men were particularly proud of their hair, as they deemed it the most affordable of body adornments and consistently took the time to properly care for it prior to going into battle. Both Spartan men and women tied their hair back in a knot over the crown of the head. Brides even shaved their heads and wore men’s costumes as part of the ceremony.

In rival Athens, the boys wore their hair long throughout childhood and had it cut off when they reached puberty. The cutting off of teenager’s hair was a solemn act honored through religious ceremonies. A libation (oinisteria) was initially offered to Hercules, and the hair was dedicated to a deity of choice afterwards. Plutarch writes that Theseus went through the ceremony at Delphi.

Prior to marriage, Delian girls and boys cut their hair in honor of the Hyperborean maidens who died at Delos and laid it on their tombs. A bride would cut her hair on the day of the wedding ceremony as a symbol of submission to her husband and offer it to the goddess Artemis or Athena. She would then pull her remaining her up in a knot. Following the ceremony, the bride wore a crown and special wedding veil. If she happened to be unfaithful to her husband, he would then shave her head, turning her into a social outcast.

A variety of hairstyles in Ancient Greece

The great variety of hairstyles in Ancient Greece makes it difficult to pinpoint the exact period during which each of the hairdos was popular, and there were a number of unique styles as well. Among these was the “melon-like” hairstyle, or the “peponoeidis,” thus named because of what resembled deep parallel grooves akin to those of a melon. Women often left their curls hanging freely around the forehead in the shape of knots or bell clappers in what was known as the “tettix.” Yet another hairdo was the “lambadion,” a type of bun with loose ends which conjured up images of torch flames or horse’s tail.

During the Hellenistic period, hairstyles became more sophisticated and complex. However, the most impressive hairstyle of the time was the knot of Heracles (herakleion amma), associated with good fortune and love. The hair was brushed forward to form a kind of bow or butterfly.

Headbands, diadems, coronets, headscarves, and clips or loops were used in creating the various styles for women, and hair additions and wigs were not uncommon. Garlands of fruit and ivy leaves, mainly from the plant of immortality, the elichryson, which was believed to bring serenity, were also incorporated into hairstyling trends.

Later on, in Roman times, hairstyles became extremely complex and pretentious and were named after the empress or specific woman of nobility who set the trend.

Ancient Greeks held deep respect and affection for animals, believing they possessed reason, intelligence, and emotion, even as they hunted and sacrificed them to the gods. Greek literature and philosophy reveal a culture that viewed animals not merely as property but as living beings connected to humanity through thought, feeling, and shared experience.

Among the ancient thinkers who reflected most passionately on the treatment of animals was the historian Plutarch, whose writings remain among the strongest defenses of animals in the ancient world. Long before modern debates over animal welfare emerged, Plutarch argued that animals possessed intelligence and emotion and that cruelty toward them degraded the human soul itself. His ideas did not exist in isolation. Rather, they grew out of a broader Greek tradition in which animals occupied an honored place in religion, philosophy, daily life, and even familial affection.

The Ancient Greeks lived closely alongside animals in nearly every aspect of life. Dogs guarded homes and accompanied hunters, while horses symbolized nobility and courage. Birds were kept for pleasure, and cats, although less common than in Egypt, were sometimes used to control pests. Greek children played with pets, and wealthy households often treated favored animals as cherished members of the family.

Pet tombstones reveal Ancient Greeks loved their animals

Archaeological discoveries confirm the deep emotional attachment Ancient Greeks felt toward their pets. Tombstones dedicated to dogs, horses, and birds have been uncovered throughout the Greek world, and some inscriptions mourn animals with the same tenderness reserved for human relatives. One epitaph for a dog named Parthenope expresses grief in deeply personal language, demonstrating that the death of a beloved pet could inspire genuine sorrow. Greeks occasionally buried pets beside their owners or placed them in carefully prepared graves filled with offerings and decorations. These burials suggest that companionship with animals was not merely practical but also emotional and spiritual.

This affection appears vividly in Greek literature. In the Odyssey, the old dog Argos waits faithfully for Odysseus for twenty years. When Odysseus finally returns home in disguise, Argos recognizes him immediately before dying. The scene is brief yet unforgettable because Homer portrays the dog as capable of loyalty, memory, and emotional recognition. The moment suggests that Ancient Greeks understood animals as creatures capable of deep attachment.

Greek mythology likewise reflected admiration for animals. The owl symbolized wisdom through its association with Athena, while dolphins were regarded as intelligent and sacred creatures connected to Apollo and Poseidon. Horses were honored in myths surrounding heroic figures such as Achilles. Even the gods themselves frequently appeared in animal form, suggesting a sacred bond between humanity, divine power, and the natural world. One of the most famous examples is Zeus transforming himself into a magnificent white bull to carry away Europa.

Greek philosophers on animals

The philosophical discussion of animals became especially significant among thinkers associated with Pythagoras. Pythagoras himself believed souls could migrate between humans and animals through reincarnation. Because of this belief, he discouraged the eating of meat and taught respect for all living creatures. According to ancient tradition, he once intervened to stop a man from beating a dog, claiming he recognized the voice of a deceased friend within the animal.

Pythagoras was firmly opposed to killing “living creatures,” abstaining from what ancient sources describe as “harsh-sounding bloodshed,” including animal sacrifice, and reportedly “never eating meat.” In this sense, he is often regarded as the first Greek vegetarian. None of his original writings survive today, but his ideas are known through later authors such as Philolaus, Iamblichus, Ovid, and Plutarch.

Across these accounts, it becomes clear that Pythagoras was believed to hold that animals possessed a soul. As attributed in Ovid’s writings, “Animals share with us the privilege of having a soul,” a sentiment associated with Pythagorean teaching and vegetarian practice.

The Greek philosopher Empedocles, himself influenced by Pythagorean thought, later expanded these ideas by arguing that all living beings share kinship. He condemned the killing of animals and viewed both violence toward them and their consumption as morally corrupting. He even described animal sacrifice as a form of injustice, regardless of its religious purpose. Tradition holds that he once crafted an ox out of barley meal and perfumes as an offering to the gods in place of a real animal. Such ideas were radical in a society where animal sacrifice remained central to religious life, yet they demonstrate that compassion toward animals already held a respected place in Greek philosophical thought.

Plutarch: the first animal rights advocate

No ancient writer expressed these ideas more forcefully than the biographer Plutarch. Living during the 1st and early 2nd centuries AD, Plutarch wrote essays that challenged widely held assumptions about human superiority. In works such as “On the Eating of Flesh and Whether Land Animals Are Cleverer Than Sea Animals,” he argued that animals possessed intelligence, emotion, and reasoning ability.

Plutarch was troubled not only by cruelty toward animals itself but also by the indifference people showed toward suffering. One of his most cited passages asks readers to confront the moral shock of eating flesh: “I for my part do much admire in what humor, with what soul or reason, the first man with his mouth touched slaughter.”

This was not merely a dietary critique. Plutarch believed that violence toward animals corroded human morality. In his view, cruelty was a habit that extended outward. Societies accustomed to bloodshed against animals risked becoming desensitized to violence more broadly.He also rejected the idea that animals lacked intelligence. Plutarch insisted that animals possessed perception, memory, emotion, and understanding. In one striking passage, he describes them as beings capable of thought and awareness: “Each animal hath received from Nature…imagination, and intellection.”

For Plutarch, this recognition carried clear ethical implications. He criticized those who treated living creatures as mere objects of pleasure or luxury. In another memorable line, he writes: “But for the sake of some little mouthful of flesh, we deprive a soul of the sun and light.” Such language is striking because it attributes something close to personhood to animals. Plutarch ultimately presents them not as mindless beings but as fellow participants in the shared experience of life itself.

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle finds similarities between behavior of humans and animals

Other Ancient Greek thinkers also recognized forms of intelligence in animals. Aristotle, though less compassionate than Plutarch, studied animals extensively and acknowledged notable similarities between animal and human behavior. In his biological works, he observed memory, communication, and social organization across a wide range of species. Theophrastus, Aristotle’s successor, went even further, arguing that animals could reason and experience pain in ways comparable to humans. He opposed unnecessary slaughter, maintaining that humans and animals share a natural kinship.

Respect for animals in the Ancient Greek world also appeared in religious practice. Certain animals were considered sacred to specific gods, and in some sanctuaries, their killing was forbidden. Festivals at times honored animals alongside deities, while myths frequently portrayed them as wise guides, loyal companions, or messengers of divine will.

Yet the Greek attitude toward animals was never entirely uniform. The same society that mourned pets and admired dolphins also engaged in hunting and animal sacrifice. Oxen plowed fields, horses served in warfare, and livestock provided food. Ancient Greek culture therefore contained an ongoing tension between the practical use of animals and a genuine admiration for them.

This contradiction is what makes Plutarch particularly significant. Rather than accepting cruelty as inevitable, he challenged prevailing norms directly. He questioned whether intelligence, emotion, and the capacity to suffer should carry moral weight. In many ways, his writings anticipate modern discussions of animal consciousness and ethical responsibility.

Plutarch’s insistence that animals possess intelligence and feeling ultimately challenged assumptions of human superiority. He argued that kindness toward animals was inseparable from human virtue itself. To harm innocent creatures unnecessarily was, in his view, to diminish one’s own humanity.