Alexander the Great’s (356-323 BC) death meant his vision for a Greco-Persian Empire was extinguished with him—or was it?
A hodgepodge of East and West, Mithridates’ Pontic Empire emerges as a compelling possibility of what Alexander’s empire could’ve been, a faint apparition of that fleeting dream.
Mithridates (135–63 BC) was the inheritor of two cultures and, naturally, an incarnation of two worlds. He delighted in his Macedonian heritage as much as his Persian forbearers.
Claiming Macedonian ancestry on one side and Persian dynastic lineage on the other, Mithridates used his mixed descent to reveal the commonalities between his diverse subjects.
Taking on Alexander’s mantle of global empire, Mithridates envisioned an alternative to Roman supremacy, a new world order.
To achieve this ambitious aim, the Pontian King united his Greek, Anatolian, and Persian subjects under an anti-Roman cross-cultural coalition.
The result of this cooperation was three wars mounted against Rome, wars that escalated to the point of genocide.
How could he amass such a diverse following against such a formidable foe?
Mithridates took a page from Alexander’s book and embodied East and West, both in appearance and idea.
Mithridates hailed from the Kingdom of Pontus, a cultural melting pot that Alexander the Great would have approved of.
The north of Pontus’s snow-clad Alps was a largely Hellenic-dominated coastline. There, Greek colonists had erected the city of Sinope, Mithridates’ capital.
The historian Strabo, himself a Pontian, claimed that it was “the most noteworthy of the cities in the region.”
South of the Alps was known as Katpatuka (land of horses) by the Iranians and, later, Cappadocia by the Greeks. There, villages predominated apart from a few settlements, such as Amaseia, Strabo’s hometown, and Cabeira.
While Hellenic culture dominated the coast, the Cappadocian hinterland preserved its old Anatolian non-Greek heritage. Rostovtzeff (1932), a pioneer in Pontic history, described the Hellenic influence around the Black Sea as “a thin Greek shell around a hard native kernel.”
The third influence on the region was Iranian. The enduring relics of Persian rule would have been visible to many a Hellenistic Pontian. Strabo says that the Pontic people took sacred vows at the state temple, Zela, which were dedicated to Persian deities: Anaitis, Omanus, and Anadatus.
Moreover, Zeus Stratios, most likely a syncretic reincarnation of Ahura Mazda, received lavish offerings from Persian Kings, which Pontian rulers, including Mithridates Eupator, continued. The continuation of Persian religious customs well after an eclipse of Achaemenid authority attests to the impression Persian presence had made on Pontic royalty and their subjects.
In the subsequent Hellenistic period, the increasing pace of Hellenization of the kingdom meant that the Mithridates Dynasty had to evolve. There needed to be a balance between the new incoming wave of this ancient form of globalization with their Perso-Anatolian traditions that still held sway in their domain.
Mithridates Eupator’s dual lineages afforded him illustrious ancestors and a unique hybrid set of dynastic customs. He was a Helleno-Persian Prince who practiced mixed religious rites.
Mithradates divine connections are well in accordance with Alexander the Great’s own claims. Like the Pontic King, Alexander claimed Heracles and Dionysus, among other numinous figures, as ancestors.
Consequently, the Pontic King embodied redemptive qualities resonating in the Greek and Perso-Anatolian worlds. For the Greeks, he established a mythical connection with Dionysus, the god of liberation and new beginnings, and took the theonym Mithridates Eupator Dionysus.
Likewise, Mithridates claimed heritage from Herakles, who emancipated the titan Prometheus, humanity’s creator. On the other hand, Mithridates’ star-signaling birth was said to fulfill Persian prophecies of a coming savior from the East, as did his name, “Mithras-sent.”
In addition to religious mediation, Mithridates weaponized the growing resentment of his subjects. Just like Alexander’s vision for his diverse empire, the Pontian King tried to respect Greek and Iranian values.
Both Greeks and Perso-Anatolians were chafing under Roman occupation. In mainland Greece and Anatolia, the common hatred towards Roman rule provoked a transcultural antagonism against Roman hegemony.
Debt accrued by Roman taxation hindered asa or Truth, a prominent Persian tenet. For the Greeks, Roman occupation was seen as compromising their eleutheria, or freedom, which was fundamental to Greek identity.
Mithridates acknowledged these grievances in his speeches, along with coins and other allusions. By showing sensitivity to both cultures, the Pontian King illustrated how compatible Iranian and Greek cultures could be.
This may be surprising, considering the tumultuous history that plagued the relations between Greeks and Iranians. Egregious crimes were committed in Athens by the Persians and by Greeks in Persepolis at Alexander’s instigation as punishment.
Yet Mithridates successfully harmonized the two cultures, as Alexander the Great’s policies aimed to accomplish.
Sensitive to Greek and Perso-Anatolian culture, Mithridates entangled much of the Eastern Mediterranean in opposition to Rome. Mithridates carried on Alexander’s vision for an international empire even though he was unsuccessful in his wars against Rome. By doing so, the Pontian king proved Alexander the Great’s Helleno-Persian hypothesis was possible.
Alexander’s vision for joining East and West wasn’t an idyllic dream but was ultimately an achievable reality.
The Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism has officially declared the Granicus Battlefield—where Alexander the Great secured his first major victory against the Persian Empire—a “protected historical and archaeological site.”
According to a ministry announcement and statements shared on social media by Culture and Tourism Minister Mehmet Nuri Ersoy, the decision was based on recent archaeological discoveries and scientific studies in the Biga district of Çanakkale (Dardanelles).
Following extensive field surveys, scientific data evaluation, and the analysis of ancient sources linked to the Battle of the Granicus, the Çanakkale Regional Council for the Conservation of Cultural Property determined that the area meets all criteria for designation as an archaeological site.
The ministry highlighted the location as one of the most iconic landmarks in military history, marking the definitive starting point of Alexander the Great’s triumph over the Persian Empire.
In a social media post, Minister Mehmet Nuri Ersoy stated:
“We have officially placed the grounds of a battle that reshaped world history under state protection. The Granicus Battlefield, where Alexander the Great achieved his first major victory against the Persians and paved his way into Asia, has now been designated a ‘historical site.’ Located in Biga, Çanakkale, this unique landmark is officially protected in light of archaeological finds and rigorous scientific research. We believe this crucial step will significantly contribute to historical scholarship, boost cultural tourism, and enrich our country’s cultural routes.”
The Battle of the Granicus, fought in May 334 BC near modern-day Biga in northwestern Turkey, was Alexander the Great’s dramatic opening salvo against the Persian Empire. Having recently crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor with roughly 32,000 infantry and 5,100 cavalry, the 21-year-old Macedonian king confronted a combined force of local Persian satraps (governors) and highly capable Greek mercenaries.
The Persians, positioned defensively along the steep, muddy eastern banks of the Granicus River, hoped to neutralize Alexander’s aggressive tactical style by forcing him to fight from a disadvantageous position in the water. Rejecting the cautious advice of his veteran general Parmenion to delay the attack, Alexander ordered an immediate, highly risky amphibious assault in broad daylight.
The engagement quickly devolved into a chaotic, brutal melee within the riverbed and up the muddy slopes. Alexander personally led the elite Companion Cavalry from the right wing, instantly becoming a prime target due to his conspicuous, brightly plumed helmet.
The fighting was so fierce that Alexander was nearly killed; a Persian noble shattered his helmet with a battleaxe, and just as another was about to deliver a fatal blow, his captain Cleitus the Black severed the attacker’s arm, saving the young king’s life.
Once the formidable Macedonian phalanx (infantry formation) crossed the river to support the cavalry, the Persian battle lines shattered. The victory was absolute: the Persian leadership was decimated, the surviving Greek mercenaries were ruthlessly executed or enslaved, and the psychological myth of Persian invincibility was shattered, effectively throwing open the gates of Asia Minor to Alexander’s conquering army.
Related: Archaeologists Identify Location of Alexander the Great’s Battle of Granicus
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