The story of the ring known as the “Ring of King Minos” sounds like a tale made in Hollywood. It is a mix of ancient Greek history, mythology, and a plot involving a poor boy, a cunning priest, an English archaeologist, and hidden treasure.

The story begins in 1928, when a boy, Michalis Papadakis (1918-1974), accidentally found a ring at the archaeological site of Knossos. The place of discovery alone meant that the ring certainly had a very long history attached to it probably even going back to the Minoan civilization.

Indeed, several decades later, the shiny, gold, seal ring proved to be 3,500 years old (1,500 to 1,400 BC), as archaeologists assured him, and his was the most significant discovery of Minoan Civilization.

The boy’s father, a destitute farmer named Emmanouil, for some unknown reason, hid the ring from his wife and, for another unknown reason, two years later, he handed it over to the village priest, Father Nikolaos Polakis. Yet, before giving it away, he carved a line on the ring with his knife in order to mark its originality.

Father Polakis initially presented it to English archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans with the intention of selling it. However, there was no deal struck between the two since the priest demanded an astronomical amount of money.

In 1933 or 1934, Father Polakis decided to take the ring to the Heraklion Museum. At the time, the distinguished archaeologists, Nikolaos Platon and Spyridon Marinatos, were on the staff of the institution. Platon decided that the ring was genuine while Marinatos believed the ring was a fake.

Since the two archaeologists could not come to an agreement, they decided it was best to return the ring to the priest.

However, Platon kept a copy of the ring by casting it in plasticine. The cast was later located in Platon’s archive. Several years later, he manifested a new interest in the ring and returned to the priest to ask for it. Father Polakis told him that he had given it to his wife for safekeeping, but she had lost it.

Minos ring depicts three themes

Platon wrote a treatise on the ring saying that it depicts three themes: the Minoans’ rule of the seas (“thalassocracy”), tree worship (dendrolatry), and a goddess descending from heaven to earth and getting into a row boat.

There are other, more recent interpretations of the depictions of the ring including the worship of goddesses, such as Mother Dimitra, and offerings to the Great Mother Rhea and the Great Mother Artemis.

For some time, the ring remained lost. The only information about the ring came from the copies that had been made and a number of archaeological reports which were associated with those copies.

Many years later, when Father Polakis was in his final days, he felt great regret about the “disappearance” of the precious ring. He called Evangelia Papadakis, the wife of the farmer Emmanouil, and apologized for lying to her family. He admitted that he had actually sold the ring to Evans, the English archaeologist, for 100,000 drachmas back in 1938.
However, that was one last lie by the cunning priest. What he had actually sold to Evans was a fine replica of the ring.

Evans had returned to England with the belief that he had bought the actual ring, along with a copy, and donated both, along with other precious artifacts, to the Ashmolean Museum. Today, two replicas of the legendary ring continue to be exhibited at the Ashmolean.

The story of the ring was forgotten for decades, but in the early 2000s, Giorgos Kazantzis, a retired police officer, inherited the house of the priest who was the last person in Greece who had had possession of the priceless artifact.

During renovation work, Kazantzis found a jar hidden inside the wall next to the fireplace. Inside the jar was a ring, which indeed proved to be the original Ring of King Minos. It even had the scratch made by Papadakis over seventy years ago.

Kazantzis delivered the precious artifact to the state, and in 2002, the Central Archaeological Council and a panel of expert archaeologists confirmed the authenticity of the ring. The actual monetary value of the ring was estimated to be €400,000 although its cultural value is incalculable.

Yet, for finding the ring and promptly delivering it to the appropriate authorities, Kazantzis was given a measly finder’s fee of €440.

Today, the priceless, gold Minoan ring is exhibited in all its splendor at the Heraklion Archaeological Museum.

In Homer’s Iliad, Thetis plays an important role in shaping the destiny of her son, Achilles. As a goddess, she intervenes at key moments in the epic, pushing the Greek hero to alter the course of events.

Although Thetis appears less frequently than many of the warriors and gods who dominate the battlefield at Troy, her actions influence some of the most significant developments in the poem. As a sea goddess and the mother of the greatest Greek warrior, she occupies a unique position between the divine and mortal worlds. She cannot prevent Achilles from dying, since the Fates have already decreed it, yet she repeatedly intervenes to protect his honor, ease his suffering, and ensure that his glory endures.

Through Thetis’ character, Homer explores themes of maternal love, fate, mortality, glory, and divine power. The first major instance of Thetis helping Achilles occurs in Book 1. After Agamemnon captures Briseis, a captive woman awarded to Achilles as a war prize, the Greek hero feels deeply dishonored and withdraws from battle. In his grief and anger, Achilles calls upon his mother. Thetis immediately rises from the sea to comfort him and listen to his complaint.

This scene reveals the extraordinary bond between mother and son. Unlike many divine figures in Greek mythology, Thetis responds with sympathy and tenderness. She understands Achilles’ suffering because she is painfully aware of his short lifespan. Her lament for him reflects a mother’s helplessness in the face of fate.

Thetis petitions Zeus to turn events in favor of Troy

After hearing Achilles’ request, Thetis undertakes one of the most consequential actions in the epic. She travels to Olympus and petitions Zeus to punish the Greeks by granting success to the Trojans. Her aim is not simply revenge but the restoration of Achilles’ honor. Zeus eventually agrees, and his decision alters the course of the war. The Trojans begin to gain the upper hand, while the Greeks suffer devastating losses. Through this intervention, Thetis helps Achilles achieve the recognition he believes Agamemnon has denied him.

This episode demonstrates the extent of Thetis’ influence among the gods. Although she cannot alter fate itself, she is capable of shaping the chain of events that leads toward it. Her appeal to Zeus succeeds in part because of a previous favor she had done for him. In this sense, her assistance rests not only on maternal devotion but also on her standing within the divine order. Achilles’ withdrawal from battle would have remained a private grievance without Thetis’ intervention. Instead, it escalates into a crisis that engulfs the entire Greek army.

The second major instance of Thetis helping Achilles occurs after the death of Patroclus. Patroclus, Achilles’ closest companion, enters battle wearing Achilles’ armor and is killed by Hector. When Achilles learns of his friend’s death, he is overwhelmed by grief and rage. Once again, Thetis hears her son’s cries and goes to him. This scene is among the most emotional in the Iliad. Thetis is aware that Achilles’ decision to return to battle will lead directly to his own death, yet she does not attempt to stop him. Instead, she offers comfort and practical assistance.

Hephaestus forges the invincible shield of Achilles

Achilles cannot immediately rejoin the fighting because Hector has confiscated his armor. Recognizing his need, Thetis travels to the forge of Hephaestus and requests new armor for her son. Hephaestus responds by crafting the magnificent shield of Achilles, one of the most celebrated objects in world literature. The shield depicts scenes of war and peace, labor and celebration, and life and death. With this armor, Thetis enables Achilles to return to battle and fulfill his heroic destiny.

This act of assistance is particularly significant because it highlights the limits of divine power. Thetis can secure the finest armor ever made, but she cannot save Achilles from mortality. Her help therefore reflects the tragic paradox that every action she takes to aid her son also brings him closer to the fate she most fears. The armor allows Achilles to defeat Hector, but it also marks the final stage of his journey toward death.

Thetis’ role after Hector’s death further underscores her importance. Achilles becomes consumed by grief and rage, dragging Hector’s body around the tomb of Patroclus. The gods disapprove of this behavior and decide that Hector must be returned to his family. Zeus sends Thetis to deliver his command to Achilles. She successfully persuades her son to release the body in exchange for ransom, helping restore moral balance and preparing the tale for closure.

This final intervention reveals another dimension of Thetis’ assistance. Earlier, she helped Achilles gain honor through vengeance; now she helps him regain humanity through compassion. Her influence guides him from destructive rage toward acceptance. The reconciliation between Achilles and Priam, one of the most moving scenes in ancient literature, would not have occurred without Thetis serving as the messenger between gods and mortals.

The complexity of Thetis, the mother of Achilles

Modern scholars have emphasized the complexity of Thetis’ character. Rather than portraying her simply as a nurturing mother, recent studies highlight her power and agency. Thetis is more than a grieving parent. She is a divine force capable of influencing both Olympus and the battlefield for the benefit of her son. This is evident in actions such as her request to Hephaestus to forge an impenetrable suit of armor for Achilles.

At the same time, scholars frequently stress the tragic nature of her motherhood. Classicist Emily Wilson observes that she has come to view the Iliad as “a poem about the pain of a goddess mother who adores her mortal child and can’t protect him.” This insight captures the emotional core of Thetis’ role in the epic. Despite her divine status, she remains powerless as a mother in the face of fate. Her interventions can shape events, but they cannot prevent the loss she knows is imminent.

Other scholars have also noted that grief defines Thetis’ presence throughout the epic poem. Classicist Serena Cannavale describes Thetis in the Iliad as “a figure of grief,” emphasizing that her sorrow is present long before Achilles actually dies. Her laments anticipate the tragedy that hangs over the entire narrative.

Ultimately, Thetis helps Achilles in three essential ways: she restores his honor by persuading Zeus to favor the Trojans, she equips him for revenge by obtaining new armor from Hephaestus, and she guides him back toward humanity by conveying Zeus’s command to release Hector’s body to Priam. These actions shape the central events of the Iliad and reveal the profound connection between mother and son. Yet the tragedy of Thetis lies in the fact that her power cannot overcome destiny. She can comfort Achilles, protect his reputation, and secure his everlasting glory, but she cannot save his life.

For this reason, Thetis embodies the tension between divine power and human mortality. Every time she helps Achilles, she demonstrates her love, yet every act of assistance also reminds readers that fate is stronger than even the gods. Through Thetis, Homer presents a moving portrait of maternal devotion in the face of inevitable loss, making her one of the emotional centers of the Iliad.

The Ancient Greeks were active travelers, despite the dangers of land travel and the fear of highwaymen. Sea travel required ample supplies and means.

A fascinating archaeological find exhibited in the Agora Museum in Athens is rectangular clay tablets with inscribed names and occupations that purportedly served as travel documents in antiquity.

Most travelers were aristocrats and well-to-do citizens who traveled to witness and experience the wonders of the ancient world, and other famous places and sights.

Others traveled for pilgrimage; healing in sanctuaries such as the Sanctuary of Asclepius in Olympia, the Sanctuary of Apollo on Delos Island, or to attend religious festivals and monumental athletic events like the Olympic Games at Olympia or the Panathenaic Games in Athens.

Merchants also traveled to other parts of Greece, or across the Mediterranean and beyond to promote and sell their goods to destinations such as Egypt, Asia Minor, the Middle East, and the Black Sea.

The Ancient Greeks were curious about the world and had a great desire to learn. For that reason, they held travel in high regard. The most famous epic journeys, such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey or Jason’s expedition to retrieve the Golden Fleece, had protagonists who had to travel far and undergo trials to achieve their goals.

In their long journeys. They experienced great adventures, encountered grave dangers, and saw things and, above all, places they would never see if confined in their birthplace all their lives. These epics celebrated heroic adventures through travel.

Then people from all over Greece and beyond would travel far to consult the oracle at Delphi and plan their future.

Also, it was through travel that ancient Greeks discovered places worth exploring and exploiting, such as uninhabited fertile lands or seaside areas with great potential, where they established trading colonies.

Overall, the accounts of travelers provided valuable information about the contemporary world. In modern day, these accounts help us understand the world during that period.

Practical issues of traveling in antiquity

In addition, Greeks who traveled frequently brought back new ideas, Eastern tastes in clothing, jewelry, and foods, as well as architectural trends.

The ancient Greeks discovered new lands and established trading colonies across the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, and the Black Sea from the 8th through the 6th centuries. Many of these have evolved into the great cities that still stand today.

The most famous of the colonies were those in Magna Graecia, in today’s southern Italy and Sicily (Calabria, Apulia, Basilicata, Campania, Syracuse, Tarentum, Sybaris, and Croton), where the Greek element is still alive today, especially in the language.

Other important ancient Greek colonies were Massalia (modern-day Marseilles in France), Cyrene in Libya, and Byzantium on the Bosporus Strait, which later became Constantinople.

Greek philosophers on travelling

Several ancient Greek philosophers valued travelling as a means to gain knowledge and experience. Encountering different cultures and experiencing new environments broadens one’s perspective. Great figures like Thales and Pythagoras traveled to Egypt and other regions to study and acquire knowledge.

Aristotle believed that empirical observation and practical experience are good sources of knowledge. Provided, though, that one had the foundations in reason and virtue through formal education. Otherwise, one could not learn simply by travelling. The philosopher is known as saying, not in the exact words, that travel is education for the young and experience for the old.

For those who are older, Aristotle believed that they accumulate experience and wisdom by travelling. They reflect on their lives, gain new insights into the world, and may appreciate life more profoundly.

“Those who wish to know about the world must learn about it in its particular details,” said Heraclitus, the Greek philosopher from Ephesus. The quote implies that a man should travel to learn about the world with his own eyes. Heraclitus believed that the world is constantly changing: “The only thing that is constant is change,” is one of his famous quotes.

With his phrase “τα πάντα ρεί” (everything flows), Heraclitus said that the world is in perpetual motion; therefore, man should be constantly moving as well.

Plato is known for having traveled extensively, visiting Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and Libya. The reason he traveled so much was his disappointment with Athenian society. He was exposed to new cultures and ideas during his travels, which influenced his philosophical development and his Theory of Forms.

Other philosophers who traveled extensively were Thales of Miletus, who visited Egypt to study science and mathematics. Pythagoras traveled to Egypt, Israel, Babylonia, and possibly India. Democritus traveled in Asia, Egypt, and possibly India and Ethiopia.

Socrates, on the other hand, was against travelling and he never left Athens, his hometown. The father of philosophy, for many, believed that man should only make internal journeys. He emphasized self-knowledge and ethical development, which he believed were best pursued through internal reflection and dialogue.

The recorded history of wine in Ancient Greece begins around the 15th century BC, while viticulture appears to have existed as early as the Neolithic era, 6,500 years ago.

Ancient Greece is also the place where modern wine culture began, as wine consumption stopped being solely a sacred act, as it had been when priests and rulers controlled the vineyards.

By the early Bronze Age, vineyard cultivation of grapes was widespread in ancient Greece, and by the time of the rise of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, wine was part of everyday life, for consumption and/or production.

By that time in Greek society, wine was an economically important business.

Wine and commerce in ancient Greece

There was substantial interaction between the Mycenaean and Minoan cultures, based mainly on commerce.

Around 1200 BC, people from northern Greece invaded the southern Mycenaean area, which was a monarchy.

The war devastated the Mycenaean lands, generating thousands of poor refugee families who escaped to fortified cities for protection.

In order to consolidate their powers, the invaders gave more privileges to the common people, thus undermining the power of monarchs and aristocrats.

The new, democratic city-states were slowly created over time with the common people having more freedoms and opportunities.

Gradually, the common people started cultivating plots of land, with vineyards and olive groves being the most plentiful and lucrative.

People could thus own vineyards, cultivate them, and trade and drink their own wine. A new class of merchants, albeit a small one, was born.

At the same time, more and more people in ancient Greece began to drink wine for pleasure rather than as a sacred ritual.

Colonization and trade expansion

The Greek city-states then began to establish colonies throughout the Mediterranean. The settlers, already experienced in vine cultivation, brought grapevines with them and were able to better cultivate already-existing vineyards.

Moving west, Sicily and southern Italy were the first colonies established by ancient Greeks. Greeks even called the southern part of the Italian Peninsula Oenotria (“the land of vines”).

Other Greeks settled in Massalia (Marseille) in southern France while others moved east all the way to the shores of the Black Sea.

The colonies provided more opportunities for wine merchants. The Greeks could now introduce their wines as far as the western part of France and to the Black Sea in the east.

Athens was a large and lucrative market for wine, as the climate in the Attica region was ideal for vines, and production was substantial. Wine from Attica was traded in all the lands along the eastern Mediterranean Sea.

Other areas famous for wine in ancient Greece were the islands of Santorini and Thasos. This is especially true in Santorini, where the rich volcanic soil produced exceptional grapes. Ancient Greeks were very particular about the origin of their wines.

Major trading partners for wine in ancient Greece were Crimea, Egypt, Scythia, and Etruria among others, as the Greeks traded their knowledge of viticulture and winemaking.

Indicative of the lucrative trade of wine from Greece is a shipwreck discovered off the coast of southern France that held nearly 10,000 amphorae containing almost 300,000 liters (79,000 US gallons) of Greek wine.

Diluted wine

The wine in ancient Greece was unlike what we know today. It was not left undiluted but was mixed with water in precise proportions in a vessel called a krater.

In certain seaside areas or islands, such as Santorini, Greeks used to mix wine with salt water as a preservative and for the taste it imparted. Honey was sometimes added to sweeten the wine.

The mixing of water and wine was for the drinker to enable him or herself to maintain composure and self-control, traits that were highly valued in ancient Greek society.

In fact, ancient Greeks seemed to believe that only barbarians—in most cases that simply meant non-Greeks—drank unmixed wine, got drunk and behaved like…barbarians.

Modern wine culture begins in Greece

Along with their wine, Greeks had exported their way of life, including vine-growing, winemaking, and enjoying wine, to almost every port in the Mediterranean basin.

Socrates praised wine in the following quote:

“Wine moistens and tempers the spirit and lulls the cares of the mind to rest. It revives our joys and is oil to the dying flame of life.”

Plato also praised the fruit of the vine:

“What is better adapted than the festive use of wine in the first place to test, and in the second place to train, the character of a man, if care be taken in the use of it? What is there cheaper or more innocent?

The ubiquitousness of the word “symposium” in ancient Greece, which literally means “drinking with others”—meant that ancient Greeks loved to get together, eat, drink, and converse during and after the meal.

It was a favorite pastime for well-to-do ancient Greeks to eat, drink, discuss, and, occasionally, philosophize, at these symposia.

Such convivial get-togethers have been illustrated on many types of Greek vases and sculptures. Examples of discussions that took place in symposia can be found in Plato’s Symposium and Xenophon’s Symposium.

Usually, symposia were hosted by aristocratic men for their peers. They would relax in recliners called klinai and drink from terracotta or, depending on how rich the host was, from bronze, silver, even gold, cups.

Wine was also used for medicinal purposes in ancient Greece. The great  physician Hippocrates prescribed different wines depending on the disease.

Ancient Greeks also had a god of wine, the mischievous Dionysus. The god of the grape harvest, winemaking, fertility, orchards, fruit, vegetation, insanity, and ritual madness, he was also the god of religious ecstasy and festivity; overall, it was he who embodied the colorful, vibrant life of ancient Greece.

 

 

As Greece continues to lose its manufacturing industry, becoming all the more dependent on the service sector, an urgent restart and shift to a complex economy is crucial for the country’s economic viability.

A complex economy is interconnected with other industries that are not necessarily geographically concentrated or thematically related but which share common infrastructure, resources, and solid interdependencies in production and supply chains. The Internet of Things (IoT), automation, and data-sharing are vital for the development and success of a complex economy.

A recent Bank of Greece report states that tourism in 2025 accounted for 13 percent of the country’s GDP. The government presents this as a sign of success, but, behind the numbers, there is a sad ascertainment: Greece is no longer producing goods, and almost everything other than agricultural products is imported. Substantial revenue from tourism is definitely not a bad thing. However, the average Greek does not benefit from tourism revenue. As the cost of living rises, bragging about “soaring tourism revenues” is not filling the citizen’s supermarket cart.

According to Statista and the World Bank, between 2013 and 2023, 68.6 percent of Greece’s GDP came from the service sector, while 15.2 percent of revenue stemmed from industry and 3.3 percent from agriculture. Kostas Axarloglou, the dean and a professor at Alba Graduate Business School, says the Greek industry needs a restart and transition to a complex economy. In other words, Greece needs to enter “Industry 4.0,” or the Fourth Industrial Revolution, in which interconnectedness, automation, and real-time data are key.

Low labor productivity and wages

According to Axarloglou, only four percent of the Greek population is now employed in sectors related to Greece’s complex economy, which amounts to approximately only 11 percent of the value added to the country’s GDP in general. Additionally, in the Eastern Mediterranean nation, there is fragmentation into a large number of small businesses, exhibiting both low labor productivity and wages.

As per The Atlas of Economic Complexity, the industry sector in the Greek economy presents a relatively low degree of complexity in relation to GDP, an element indicative of low potential for economic growth in the future. Nonetheless, from 2018 onwards, The Atlas of Economic Complexity records positive growth in exports with the main contributors, among others, being the pharmaceutical and IT sectors.

A gradual structural transformation of the economy is also being observed, with the transfer of productive resources and activity towards manufacturing sectors with higher added value and productivity, such as electronics and machinery manufacturing. Finally, significant opportunities to strengthen and complement the country’s existing productive fabric have been recorded.

Axarloglou argues that there are both an overall low degree of complexity as well as structural problems in Greek manufacturing. The existence of companies with high levels of specialized know-how, however, provides a sufficient launching point in supporting the restarting of industry and the general production base of the country, which could lead to sustainable development in the Greek economy.

Importance of a complex economy in Greece

Axarloglou referenced the US industry and its contribution to the economy. While the manufacturing industry in the US constitutes 11 percent of GDP, it contributes 35 percent in productivity increase and 60 percent in exports. Furthermore, the complex economy in the United States is the engine of innovation, with related industry sectors producing 55 percent of patents and contributing 70 percent of total expenditure on research and development.

A recent study (Yong, 2020) analyzes the contribution of complexity in a set of economies with varying characteristics. The importance of dynamic industries in economic growth as well as the development of social capabilities and a significant contribution to the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in each country’s economy were scrutinized.

Overall, the study found there is a direct impact of economic complexity on the development of specific UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including on poverty reduction, education, job creation, technological economic upgrading, and overall economic development. Moreover, policy interventions for manufacturing expansion are especially vital as they contribute to the development of skills in the country, triggering technological innovation and creating new markets and institutions.

Consequently, the development of a complex economy in Greece could greatly contribute to GDP and the implementation of UN SDGs. It must be mentioned that, in previous decades, manufacturing significantly lagged behind in general, but this lag has eased in recent years.

The two pillars for a complex economy

The development of a sustainable complex economy should be based on two pillars, Axarloglou argues: firstly, extroversion and internationalization and, secondly, innovation and specialization. The Greek industry would profit from participation in International Production Networks (IPNs). This is more feasible now, as these networks evolve from the impact of circular economy, digital transformation, sustainability, and new technologies such as robotics. The mechanisms and structures that would aid in the development of a complex economy are related to the National Recovery and Resilience Plan “Greece 2.0.”

According to Axarloglou, Greece should also orient its manufacturing production towards the international market and within the framework of the Global Value Chain Networks (GVCN), developing even at regional levels. This would include energy networks in the southeastern Mediterranean and innovation pockets in Thessaloniki and Northern Greece. In addition, market megatrends, namely digital technologies, automation-robotics, sustainability and climate change, and a circular economy, should seriously be considered as worthy endeavors.

The adoption of new technologies and digitalization of operations and processes are likewise vital. Such technologies are directly related to the internet, including the IoT, the cloud, and digital platforms and ecosystems. These lead to a greater degree of integration of production, a reduction in transaction costs and easier participation, and more effective coordination of cooperating companies from various geographical locations.

Data collection and analysis (data analytics) help in better production coordination and management within GVCNs and geographically dispersed networks. Moreover, the use of online commercial platforms (e-commerce) results in easy and direct access for producers to raw materials and semi-finished products. Large markets of potential customers are also much more readily accessible.

Sustainable development, climate change, and the circular economy

All the more, a global trend for sustainable development is affecting the structure, organization, and development of GVCNs. There is a growing need to closely monitor and control companies’ social and climate footprints and their alignment with Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) priorities. At the same time, the imposition of rules on sustainability issues by governments directly affects the structure and operation of GVCNs since these lead to changes in transportation costs and countries’ advantageous dependence on renewable energy availability.

The necessity for sustainability and more efficient management of resources is leading to countries’ adoption of regulations for the operation of the economy and dynamic industries, and businesses are formulating business models and strategies compatible with the imperatives of the circular economy. Technological development now results in technologically and economically feasible production processes that operate within the framework of the circular economy. There is a focus on significant waste reduction, savings, and recycling / reutilization of raw materials and products.

Companies, therefore, develop business models within ecosystems based on collaboration with other companies in order to sustainably produce and deliver value. The purpose of these models and ecosystems is to effectively manage the life cycle of products and spare parts. Of course, the transition from a traditional-linear / operation-production model to a circular one mandates that companies make significant changes in the way they perceive the creation and distribution of value in the economy.

At the same time, the way in which producers in the complex economy model collect revenue is also changing. While, traditionally, income came from product sales, in the circular economy model, profits stem from product rental and other such services. This of course requires new skill development for value production more closely aligned with industrial product usage services, often the result of strategic partnerships among companies.

The circular business model, therefore, has the potential to revitalize manufacturing sectors and businesses by giving them the opportunity to develop new partnerships with companies and ecosystems within the framework of the GVCN, minimizing the burden on the environment, maintaining economic robustness, and achieving the triptych of objectives: an interconnection between the environment, society, and economy, leading to robustness.

European Union funds

The participation of the Greek complex economy in the GVCNs—and mainly in the regional GVCN—requires horizontal interventions that will establish and even improve the required structures and environment, thereby enabling Greek manufacturing to become competitive. Axarloglou argues that Greece has a great opportunity to improve its complex economy with the National Recovery and Resilience Plan “Greece 2.0.” It is a comprehensive plan of reforms and investments for the restructuring of the country’s production model within the extroversion-competitiveness-innovation axis.

The plan is based on initial funding of $35.6 billion (€31.1 billion) for the 2022-2026 period (approximately $21 billion in the form of subsidies and about $14.5 billion in the form of loans), with the prospect of drawing additional investment resources totaling $67.4 billion (€58.8 billion). The plan consists of four Pillars (and 18 sub-axes), namely green transition; digital transition; employment, skills, and social cohesion; and private investment and transformation of the economy.

Green transition emphasizes the energy transformation of the Greek economy towards renewable energy sources and a more energy-efficient operation of the economy, the more efficient use of natural resources, and the promotion of a circular economy.

The digital transition of the economy includes investment in infrastructure (optical fibers, 5G, etc.), the digital transformation of the state, and the promotion and adoption of digital technologies by businesses so that they can be interconnected in the International Production Networks (IPNs).

Employment, skills, and social cohesion includes actions to improve the functioning of the labor market, the reintegration of the unemployed into the labor market, the creation of jobs, and the reduction of inequalities, poverty, and social and economic exclusion.

Finally, private investment and economic transformation includes investments and actions to modernize public administration, strengthen the financial system, promote and support research and innovation, modernize and improve the resilience of key sectors—such as tourism and manufacturing—of the economy, and ultimately improve competitiveness and promote private investment and exports.

“Industry 4.0”

The acceleration of the “Industry 4.0” transformation program includes digital transformation as well as the development of “smart” production and a new generation of industrial parks in Greece. The promotion and support of investments for the development of new or upgraded production lines would enhance production and cooperation in GVCNs and improve competitiveness with an emphasis on advanced and digitally controlled industrial equipment, production control systems, and the establishment of industrial partnerships.

Furthermore, there should be significant structural changes to reduce bureaucracy related to business operations and simplify procedures for attracting and implementing foreign direct investment in the country. This will be possible with the implementation of horizontal actions to strengthen the Greek economy within the framework of the National Recovery and Resilience Plan “Greece 2.0.” Therefore, the “Greece 2.0” and “Industry 4.0” programs are inextricably linked to each other for the development of a productive complex economy in the country.

Recent research shows that ancient Greeks used a primitive type of lifting machine to move heavy stones before they began using cranes 2,500 years ago.

It is commonly believed that the foremost discovery of the ancient Greeks in building technology is the crane. Yet, enormous stone structures were known to have been built in Greece at least 150 years before the use of cranes themselves.

Cranes first appeared in the late sixth century BC, according to research published in the Annual of the British School at Athens, but their mechanical forerunners were used in buildings such as the Temples of Isthmia and Corinth at least 150 years before that, around the middle of the seventh century BC.

The researchers say that ancient Greeks were likely to have first used ramps made of earth or mudbrick to lift the heavy stone blocks used in major construction. The lifting devices are thought to have been similar to the ones used by ancient Egyptians and Assyrians centuries earlier.

The precursor of the crane lifting machine

The paper, written by Alessandro Pierattini, an assistant professor of architecture at the University of Notre Dame, argues that a kind of lifting machine used by the ancient Greeks was the next precursor to the crane, one which was capable of lifting ashlar blocks weighing over 200 to 400 kilograms (440 to 880 pounds).

The lifting machine was originally invented by the Corinthians, who used it to build ships and for lowering heavy sarcophagi into narrow, deep burial pits. It was not a crane, since it did not use winches or hoists. Instead, the builders redirected the force of the weight by using a rope passed over a frame.

“This kind of masonry represents a crucial step in the development of Greek monumental stone architecture, marking a departure both from mudbrick construction, which had been the norm for most Greek buildings, and from previous experiments with stone construction,” Pierattini writes.

The first documented use of the lever in Greek temples

Evidence of the device is considered to be grooves etched onto the bottom of stones used to construct the Corinth and Isthmia temples. These grooves are familiar to historians, but until now, it had been unknown if the grooves had occurred as a result of lifting the blocks during the building process or from moving them around in quarries.

For the study, Pierattini studied stone blocks used in early Greek temples while he also engaged in some hands-on experimental archaeology. He studied the blocks from the mid-seventh-century temples at Corinth and Isthmia and their peculiar markings—two parallel rope-grooves cut into their undersides which turned up on one end.

Using actual stones and ropes, Pierattini found that the grooves could have served a dual function, allowing builders to both lift the blocks and position them tightly against their neighbors along the walls of buildings.

“With heavy stone blocks and high friction between stone surfaces, this was a highly problematic step of construction that in later times would require sets of purpose-made holes for using metal levers,” said Pierattini.

“Μy paper demonstrates that the builders of the early temples at Corinth and Isthmia were already using levers for the final setting of the blocks. This represents the first documented use of the lever in Greek architecture,” the professor explained to Gizmodo.

Stoicism, was one of ancient Greece’s philosophical movements founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC.

Stoicism is a philosophy of personal ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world. For the Stoic, virtue alone is sufficient for human happiness.

For Stoics, emotions like fear, envy, passionate love were merely false judgements and the sage, a person who had attained moral and intellectual perfection, would not be touched by them.

It is a philosophy of life where the individual maximizes positive emotions, reduces negative emotions, and helps him or herself hone their virtues of character.

The name derives from the porch (stoa poikile) in the Agora at Athens decorated with mural paintings, where the members of the school congregated, and their lectures were held.

Birth of Stoicism, one of ancient Greece’s philosophical movements

The philosophy of Stoicism was originally known as “Zenonism” after the founder, Zeno of Citium.

Zeno ended up in Athens after his ship wrecked near the city. He was not a philosopher, but he turned his misfortune into an opportunity by studying all the philosophical resources available in the city.

He sat in on lectures from the other schools of philosophy (e.g., Cynicism, Epicureanism) and eventually started his own.

However, the Stoics did not believe that the founders were perfectly wise. In order to avoid their philosophy becoming a cult of personality, they chose to name it Stoicism after the place they were meeting, the stoa poikile of the Agora.

Zeno’s ideas developed from those of the Cynics, whose founding father, Antisthenes, had been a disciple of Socrates. Zeno’s most influential follower was Chrysippus, who was responsible for molding what is now called Stoicism.

Other prominent Stoics included Cleanthes of Assos, Panaetius of Rhodes, Aristo of Chios, Posidonius of Apameia, Diodotus, and others.

Later, Seneca, Epictetus, and Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius ushered Stoicism to the Roman world. The philosophy flourished until the 3rd century AD.

Stoic Philosophy

According to Stoicism, the path to eudaimonia (happiness) is embracing and accepting the moment as it presents itself by not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or by the fear of pain.

The Stoic must use his or her mind to understand the world and to do one’s part in nature’s plan by working together and treating others fairly and justly.

The Stoics are especially known for the teaching “virtue is the only good” and that people must lead a virtuous life to be accomplished and complete human beings.

External things—such as health, wealth, and pleasure—are not good or bad in and of themselves but have value as “material for virtue to act upon.”

The Stoics also held that certain destructive emotions, such as fear or jealousy, resulted from errors of judgment, and they believed people should aim to maintain a prohairesis (will) that is “in accordance with nature.”

To live a good life, a person had to understand the rules of the natural order, Stoics believed, since everything was rooted in nature.

For many Stoics, virtue is sufficient for happiness. Thus, a sage would be emotionally resilient to misfortune and would therefore be considered truly free.

According to Stoics, people don’t truly have control over many things and situations in life. Therefore, they believe that worrying about things outside of their control is unproductive, or even irrational for a person who wants to attain tranquility and happiness.

Stoics differentiate between what is and what is not under human control and do not waste energy and thoughts over uncontrollable adverse events.

Where many people worry endlessly about things out of their control, the Stoics believe they should expend their energy in thinking of creative solutions to problems, rather than the issues themselves.

Stoicism is not about having a set of beliefs or ethical claims. It is not a school of philosophy that is separate from everyday life.

The stoic must continuously practice and train (“askesis”). Stoic philosophical and spiritual practices include logic, Socratic dialogue and self-dialogue.

Influence of Stoicism on Christianity

The virtuous life of the Stoic has resemblances to a life led by a good Christian. Stoic writings such as “Meditations,” by Marcus Aurelius, have been highly regarded by many Christians throughout the centuries.

The Greek term for word is logos. The Greek philosopher Heraclitus used logos (the word) to explain what he saw as the universal force of reason that governed everything.

In the 5th century BC, Heraclitus said that all things happen according to the Logos. The Stoics also believed in the Logos, along with the notions of conscience and virtue.

A few centuries later, Greek-speaking Jews came to view the Logos as a force sent by God. In the Gospel of John, Jesus is referred to as the Word — “and the Word of God was made flesh and dwelt among men.”

The apostle Paul is known to have met with Stoics during his stay in Athens. In his letters, Paul reflected on his knowledge of Stoic philosophy, using Stoic terms and metaphors to assist new converts in their understanding of Christianity.

Both Stoicism and Christianity teach a person the importance of training their mind and body to be disciplined.

Both encourage the elimination of passions and inferior emotions, such as lust and envy, from one’s life, so that the higher possibilities of one’s humanity can be awakened and developed.

“If you want to be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven,” Jesus preached.

Similarly, as Seneca wrote, “We must give up many things to which we are addicted, considering them to be good.”

The Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodox Church accept the Stoic ideal of dispassion to this day, as do ascetics all over the world.

Stoicism today

Daily Stoic, How to be a Stoic, The Modern Times Stoic, Modern Stoicism, Traditional Stoicism: these are only a handful of the websites that hail the importance of—even the need for—Stoicism in the 21st century.

Is it possible, though, for today’s man to embrace a philosophy that teaches indifference to material things and possessions in a ruthlessly material world?

An intellectual and popular movement called Modern Stoicism began at the end of the 20th century which is aimed at reviving the practice of Stoicism.

However, before that, Stoic philosophy served as the original philosophical inspiration for modern cognitive psychotherapy, particularly as mediated by Dr. Albert Ellis’ Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), the major precursor of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT).

In the original cognitive therapy treatment manual for depression by Aaron T. Beck et al., it is stated, “The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers.”

A well-known quotation from the “Enchiridion” of Epictetus was taught to most clients during the initial session by Ellis and his followers: “It’s not the events that upset us, but our judgments about the events.”

This subsequently became a common element in the socialization phase of many other approaches to CBT.

Ryan Holiday’s The Obstacle is the Way; Stoicism—A Stoic Approach to Modern Life, by Tom Miles; Modern Stoicism, by Steve Brooks; and Modern Stoicism—How to Be a Stoic in the 21st Century, by Stephen Ryan are some of the books on Stoicism that have been published recently.

Famous Stoic quotes

“The happiness of your life depends upon the quality of your thoughts.”

“Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity.”

“You have power over your mind—not outside events. Realize this, and you will find strength.”

“It is not death that a man should fear, but he should fear never beginning to live.”

“Think of yourself as dead. You have lived your life. Now take what’s left and live it properly.”

“To live a good life; we all have the potential for it, if we learn to be indifferent to what makes no difference.”

“Death smiles at us all, but all a man can do is smile back.”

“Accept whatever comes to you woven in the pattern of your destiny, for what could more aptly fit your needs?”

“The object of life is not to be on the side of the majority, but to escape finding oneself in the ranks of the insane.”

“The best revenge is not to be like your enemy.”

“Very little is needed to make a happy life; it is all within yourself, in your way of thinking.”

“Loss is nothing else but change, and change is nature’s delight.”

“It is not because things are difficult that we don’t dare; it is because we do not dare that things are difficult.”

“A gem cannot be polished without friction, nor a man perfected without trials.”

“The bravest sight in the world is to see a man struggling against adversity.”

“Throw me to the wolves and I will return leading the pack.”

“Life is never incomplete if it is an honorable one. At whatever point you leave life, if you leave it in the right way, it is whole.”

“Man is affected not by events, but by the view he takes of them.”

“Sometimes even to live is an act of courage.”

“If you really want to escape the things that harass you, what you’re needing is not to be in a different place but to be a different person.”

“He suffers more than necessary, who suffers before it is necessary.”

“It is not the man who has too little, but the man who craves more, that is poor.”

“If a man knows not to which port he sails, no wind is favorable.”

“If you want to improve, be content to be foolish and stupid.”

“The world turns aside to let any man pass who knows where he is going.”

“Seek not the good in eternal things, seek it in yourselves.”

“It is the nature of the wise to resist pleasures, but the foolish to be a slave to them.”

“No man is free who is not a master of himself.”

“It is impossible to begin to learn that which one thinks one already knows.”

“Never depend on the admiration of others. There is no strength in it. Personal merit cannot be derived from an external source.”

For the Ancient Greeks, virtue was regarded as the highest quality a person could possess, and living virtuously was considered the ultimate goal of life.

Virtue was not merely a philosophical concept but a moral guide to be followed. Living a virtuous life was the greatest achievement for an Ancient Greek, but beyond moral virtue, the word itself also conveyed meanings of excellence, purpose in life, goodness, and happiness (eudaimonia, ευδαιμονία)—the fulfillment of human nature itself.

Reference to virtue (aretē, αρετή) first appeared in Homer’s epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and later evolved into a central ideal for Greek philosophers such as Socrates and Aristotle. In the Iliad, Homer exalted the virtue of bravery, placing Achilles at the forefront as the model of an excellent warrior. Achilles fought and triumphed for the sake of honor but accepted the fate destined for him.

In the Odyssey, Homer praised the virtues of intelligence (or cunning) and the endurance of Odysseus. His loyalty to Penelope is also celebrated, reflecting the virtue of loyalty to family and home. Upon returning to Ithaca, Odysseus declared that “there is nothing nobler than a man and wife who share their minds and hearts in harmony.”

The Ancient Greeks, Socrates, and virtue

Socrates, the Ancient Greek philosopher regarded by most as the father of philosophy, believed that knowledge and virtue were inseparable. The pursuit of virtue was of great importance, as Socrates viewed it as synonymous with knowledge of the good: to know what is good is to do what is good. “Virtue does not come from wealth, but wealth and every other good thing which men have comes from virtue, both to the individual and to the state” Socrates said.

By the time of the classical philosophers, the Ancient Greek world had evolved. The city-state (polis) had replaced the heroic household as the center of life, and the question was no longer how to be a great warrior but how to be a good citizen and a good person. Socrates emerged as the first great moral philosopher. “No one errs willingly,” he insisted in Plato’s Protagoras—meaning that moral failure arises from ignorance, not malice. He believed that virtue could be taught.

Socrates’ famous elenchus was a dialectical method of questioning, testing, and refining ideas. Through a series of probing questions, the method sought to expose contradictions in a person’s beliefs and systematically guide them toward a clearer, more consistent understanding of truth. By revealing these contradictions, Socrates led people toward self-knowledge.

When he was arrested and tried for disrespecting the gods and corrupting Athenian youth with his teachings, he famously declared, “The unexamined life is not worth living” (Apology 38a). For Socrates, the pursuit of virtue was the same as the pursuit of wisdom. Courage, justice, temperance, and piety were not separate traits but expressions of a unified understanding of the good. Thus, Socrates transformed virtue from heroic excellence into a philosophical and ethical ideal grounded in reason and self-knowledge.

Plato and the soul

Plato, Socrates’ most famous pupil and the philosopher who became his master’s voice, once remarked: “Consider your origins: you were not made to live as brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge.” He developed this vision of virtue further, seeking to define its nature and role in human life. In his dialogues, especially The Republic, he explored the essence of virtue in both the individual and the state.

For Plato, the human soul was composed of three parts: the rational, spirited, and appetitive. Virtue, he taught, consisted of harmony among these elements, with reason guiding spirit and desire. Justice was this inner balance made visible in action. As he wrote, “Justice is doing one’s own work and not meddling with what is not one’s own” (Republic IV.433a). The just person, therefore, is one whose reason governs, whose spirit supports, and whose desires obey.

Plato identified four cardinal virtues that reflected this harmony: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. Wisdom was the virtue of reason; courage, that of the spirited part; temperance, the balance among all desires; and justice, the overarching order of the soul. These four virtues became the foundations of Western moral philosophy and profoundly influenced Christian ethical thought.

For Plato, virtue also had a transcendent dimension. True virtue was likeness to God, aimed at the Form of the Good—the ultimate reality that gives meaning and value to all things. As he wrote, “The Good is the cause of all that is right and beautiful” (Republic VI.517b). The virtuous person, through philosophical contemplation, seeks to align the soul with this divine Good, just as the sun illuminates the visible world. Thus, virtue is not only inner harmony within the self but also participation in a higher cosmic order.

Aristotle and practical virtue

For Aristotle, the concept of virtue was practical wisdom (phronēsis). He believed that ethical virtue, rather than mere self-control, is required for practical wisdom. In the Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined virtue as a disposition to act correctly, formed through habit and guided by reason. Virtue was not innate, nor purely intellectual; it was something cultivated through action. “We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts” (Ethics II.1), he explained. In other words, virtue is learned by living it. As he also said, “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act but a habit.”

Aristotle’s famous doctrine of the mean illustrates the balanced nature of virtue. Every virtue lies between two extremes of excess and deficiency. Courage, for example, lies between cowardice (too little fear) and recklessness (too much). Generosity lies between stinginess and extravagance. “Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean,” he writes, “this being determined by reason and as the prudent person would determine it” (Ethics II.6).

For Aristotle, the goal of life was eudaimonia, often translated as “happiness” but more accurately “flourishing.” This state is achieved not through pleasure or wealth but through the full realization of one’s potential as a rational and social being. “The good for man is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue,” he said (Ethics I.7). Virtue, then, is not a single act or rule but the lifelong practice of living wisely, courageously, and justly within a community. It requires both intellectual virtues (like wisdom and understanding) and moral virtues (like courage and moderation), harmonized under the guidance of practical wisdom.

Aristotle’s conception of virtue was purpose-driven. He believed that everything in nature has an end (telos). The eye’s purpose is to see, the seed’s to grow into a tree, and the human’s to live rationally and ethically. Virtue is the perfection of this natural purpose. Hence, for Aristotle, ethics was not about obeying rules but about fulfilling one’s nature as a rational being in society.

Quotes on virtue from Aristotle

Aristotle’s work on virtue and knowledge is unparalleled. A student of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great, he established his own school, the Lyceum, where he explored topics ranging from biology to metaphysics. His reflections on virtue and the cultivation of character remain influential. Below are some of his most notable insights:

• Aristotle emphasized the importance of educating both mind and character, stating that “educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.” He highlighted self-knowledge as the foundation of wisdom: “Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom,” and courage and freedom were intertwined in his thought as is evident in his statement, “He who has overcome his fears will truly be free.”
• Aristotle also emphasized the role of habit in shaping virtue: “Good habits formed at youth make all the difference.” For Aristotle, wisdom involved understanding life beyond immediate pleasure: “The aim of the wise is not to secure pleasure, but to avoid pain.” Cultivation of the mind and spirit was central to a flourishing life: “The energy of the mind is the essence of life,” and “The ideal man bears the accidents of life with dignity and grace.”
• Aristotle also reflected on honor, leadership, and moral excellence: “Dignity does not consist in possessing honors, but in deserving them,” and “He who cannot be a good follower cannot be a good leader.” Finally, he distinguished the cultivated from the uncultivated, stating that “the educated differ from the uneducated as much as the living from the dead.”

Through these statements, Aristotle encapsulated his enduring vision of virtue as a combination of wisdom, moral character, and practical living.

The Stoics, moral worth, and virtue in Ancient Greece

The Stoics believed that the goal of all philosophical inquiry was to provide a mode of conduct characterized by tranquility of mind and certainty of moral worth. Flourishing during the Hellenistic period after Aristotle’s death, Zeno of Citium founded Stoicism around 300 BC, building on and radicalizing the moral insights of earlier philosophers. For the Stoics, virtue was not merely the highest good—it was the only good.

All external things—wealth, pleasure, health, even life itself—were morally indifferent. What mattered was the state of one’s soul: one’s rational and moral integrity. As the Stoic philosopher Epictetus later observed, “It is not things themselves that disturb men, but their opinions about things” (Enchiridion 5).

The Stoics saw virtue as living in accordance with nature, which meant acting in accordance to reason and accepting fate. Since the universe was governed by divine reason (logos), the wise individual aligns with it, remaining tranquil amid the changes of fortune. Courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom remained the core virtues, but now they were expressions of a single rational attitude toward life. As Seneca, the Roman Stoic, wrote, “Virtue is the only good, and vice the only evil; everything else is indifferent” (Letters 76). Even suffering or poverty could not harm the virtuous person because virtue itself was self-sufficient.

In this way, Stoicism universalized the Greek idea of virtue. It was no longer the privilege of citizens or philosophers but the potential of every human being. The Stoic sage, like Socrates before him, embodied moral freedom through inner mastery and reason. Marcus Aurelius, emperor and Stoic, summarized this ideal succinctly: “A man’s worth is measured by the things he pursues” (Meditations VII.3). To pursue virtue was, therefore, to live fully in harmony with the divine order of the world.

Influence of the Ancient Greek conception of virtue

The ancient Greek concept of virtue has had a profound influence on Western civilization. Ideas of moral inquiry, a virtuous life, practical wisdom, and moral worth were later adopted by Christian theology and continue to resonate today. Thomas Aquinas, for example, integrated Aristotle’s virtues with Christian faith in his writings.

In their exploration of virtue, the Ancient Greek philosophers offered no simple answers to questions such as, “How can I become virtuous?” Yet they left behind a framework for thinking, questioning, and appreciating the importance of a moral life for Western civilization.

For the Ancient Greeks, to live a virtuous life was to live well, to become the best version of oneself, and to align human nature with the rational order of the cosmos. They believed that this path led not only to moral goodness but also to true happiness.

The oldest Greek company is chocolate maker Pavlidis, which started off as the first confectionery shop in Athens more than 180 years ago.

It was 1840 when Spyridon Pavlidis, the son of a successful manufacturer of munitions used in the Greek War of Independence, established a printing house at the corner of Aiolou and Vissis streets in downtown Athens. It was where he published the works of intellectuals who opposed the autocratic regime of King Otto. He also printed a volume of the History of the Greek Nation.

However, Pavlidis was not satisfied with his business. He was an ambitious man and was not content running a printing house. Thus, he passed the printing business on to another member of his family while he himself moved on to new adventures.

His plan to establish a confectionery in 1841 was pioneering at the time. In the same space as his printing house, he opened the Pavlidis Confectionery, the first such business in Greece. Hence, it is the oldest Greek company.

The little sweets shop was the foundation of the largest chocolate company in Greece. This was the same year that the first Greek bank, the National Bank of Greece, was established.

The Pavlidis Confectionery soon became the talk of the town, offering Athenians sweets such as baklava, loukoumia, and koufeta. It became the meeting point not only for residents of the newly established capital but also for foreigners, mainly military and diplomatic personnel.

Pavlidis discovers chocolate in Europe

Following the success of his confectionery, Pavlidis decided to travel to Europe for innovative ideas and confection production machinery. He spent several months in Paris, Vienna, Rome, Amsterdam, and Madrid, among other cities. Coming from Greece, which had gained its independence only a few years ago, he was impressed by the technological advancements and innovations in the field of production he saw in Europe.

It was in Europe that he discovered a product unknown to the Greeks of the time. This was chocolate. He was so impressed by the dark brown confection that he rushed to buy the proper supplies and take his newly acquired knowledge of chocolate and confection making back to Athens.

In 1852, conditions were ripe for the introduction of the new, irresistible confection, chocolate, to his Athenian customers, who embraced it warmly right from the very beginning. Pavlidis had brought with him a manual coffee grinder and a good supply of chocolate to offer the new confection as a hot beverage.

Convinced of its nutritious qualities, Pavlidis also promoted chocolate for its medicinal qualities, calling it “health chocolate” (Greek: σοκολάτα υγείας). To this day, dark chocolate in Greece is referred to as “health chocolate” regardless of the manufacturer.

Seeking ways to upgrade the quality of his chocolate and make it more widely accessible, Pavlidis began making chocolate bars of great quality. International awards were won, and these were added to the famous blue wrapping still in use today.

The “health chocolate” was loved by Greeks, and in 1865, the dark delicacy won gold in an international chocolate fair in Paris. Eighteen more awards, featured on the blue wrapping of the chocolate bars, followed in European confectionery competitions.

The oldest Greek company and its “health chocolate”

Without resting on his laurels, Pavlidis sent employees abroad to introduce them to the world of chocolate. Their mission was to return with innovative ideas. In 1867, he chose to participate in the Paris World Affair, the largest exhibition in Europe. It is said that it cost him more than 21,000 francs to participate, but his effort was rewarded, as his “health chocolate” won two bronze awards.

The next innovation came in 1871, when, in an effort to renew the manufacturing machinery, he introduced the first steam-powered chocolate production machine. As his descendant, Dimitrios Pavlidis, described: “The event was considered grand and the Athenians gathered forming endless queues in front of the workshop to admire or…be frightened by the steam engine.”

Indeed, the steam-powered chocolate production machine was a technological wonder of the time. It completely changed the making of the famous health chocolate and the oldest Greek company defined a new era in the country’s industry.

The next landmark year for the Pavlidis family was 1876, when production moved to the Piraeus Street factory to cover the great demand for the now world-famous chocolate. The renovated factory remains in the same spot today.

The year 1876 ​​is noteworthy. The Pavlidis chocolate factory was established and began its operations in the Piraeus Street factory, where it continues to stand to this day. The aroma of chocolate looms over Piraeus Street when the machines are running.

Two years later, Dimitrios Pavlidis succeeded his father and founder Spyridon Pavlidis until the family business passed on to Alexandros Pavlidis in 1895.

Pavlidis chocolate enters the 20th century

In the new century, the oldest Greek company grew further, and the factory produced mass quantities of “health chocolate.” Dimitrios Pavlidis renovated and modernized the Pavlidis chocolate factory on Piraeus Street, making it a model industrial unit of the time.

The premature death of Alexandros Pavlidis at the age of 54 was a great loss for the company, as he was a notable figure in the corporate world.

During the German occupation (1941-1944) the factory was commandeered by the German army to produce jams and pharmaceuticals.

Following the war, the last member of the family to take over the management of the business was Dimitrios A. Pavlidis. He constructed the building on Aiolou Street immediately after the occupation, as the factory remained closed for quite some time due to lack of raw materials.

His wife, Eleni Pavlidis, took over the management of the business. As a dynamic woman with a flair for business, she made the company a limited liability one. Eleni was then succeeded by her son Dimitrios.

Dimitrios Pavlidis proceeded to expand the factory premises on Piraeus Street and create a new unit at Oinophyta, Viotia. He updated factory machinery and concentrated on expanding the company so as to also export products.

When Dimitris Pavlidis passed away in 1986, the presidency of the company was successively held by Aspasia A. Pavlidis and Georgios X. Pavlidis. In 1988, the oldest company in Greece and the most historic Greek sweets industry passed on to the hands of the Swiss group Jacobs Suchard, one of the largest multinational confectionery, chocolate, and coffee groups in the world market.

In 1991, Pavlidis was acquired by food giant Kraft. The new owner renovated the Piraeus Street factory, which was completed in 2000 in its current state as a chocolate museum.