The breast cancer 'breakthrough' is a story of overtreatment, not a triumph of testing, says Dr Clare Craig. The truth is, the genetic test failed, but it's being rolled out anyway.
The post The Breast Cancer ‘Breakthrough’ is a Story of Overtreatment Not a Triumph of Testing appeared first on The Daily Sceptic.
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In my previous article, I pointed out a certain Brazilian social conformism that sometimes prevents us from dealing with major national problems without foreign pressure. In this one, I want to nuance this issue a bit, showing the importance of the intermediate classes between the government and the people.
Let’s start with the conformist aspect: since the advent of republican propaganda, the Brazilian people, which lived under Monarchy, had a reputation for being passive. In theory, the Republic is the government of the People, while the Monarchy is the government of the nobility. With these definitions, the simple fact that the Brazilian people are not enthusiastic about the Republic already makes them foolish. And since Brazil was the only monarchy in the Americas, surrounded by Spanish-speaking republics founded on Masonic and Enlightenment ideals of freedom, the Brazilian people were especially foolish. Until the last decade, we Brazilians looked at our Argentine neighbors, who were always banging pots and pans in front of the Casa Rosada, and lamented our passivity – as if the Argentine “critical spirit” had given them a good destiny.
In 1889, with a clumsy military revolt led by a monarchist marshal, the Republic was proclaimed in Brazil in spite of the will of the people. A great Brazilian historian, José Murilo de Carvalho (1939 – 2023), used the memory of a republican militant to give a title to his book about the first years of the Republic: Os Bestializados [The Bestialized Crowd]. The people watched the proclamation of the Republic bewildered, without understanding what was happening, thinking it was a military parade. And the common people – the vagrants, the prostitutes, the capoeira fighters – were overwhelmingly monarchist in the decades following the implementation of the Republic. The Abolition of slavery made the deposed Emperor loved above all by the poor blacks of Brazil.
According to what was stated in books and pamphlets, the Republic was supposed to be the apotheosis of the People, but the people didn’t care at all. It then became usual for the journalistic class to complain about the passivity of the Brazilian people. There was a major event that made the Brazilian people show their worth – and the illiterate protesters interviewed by journalists expressed themselves in these terms. This event was the Vaccine Revolt, which took place in Rio de Janeiro in 1904.
As José Murilo de Carvalho explains, this revolt has social causes that are different from the vaccine itself, or its side effects. There is an institution that is said to be specifically Brazilian: that of the law that sticks or doesn’t stick. The government can pass a law and the law “doesn’t stick.” In the case of the slave trade, which we saw in the previous article text, the government can even pass a law with the purpose of not applying it – the law “so that the Englishman can see.” In the case of the law that doesn’t stick, there is a resistance to the government that is diffuse, tacit, and anonymous. No one openly confronts the authority, nor does anyone take responsibility. The law simply “didn’t stick,” as if it were a given of nature, a plant that could have sprouted but didn’t. Everyone says “okay” to the State, but nobody obeys. Or they only obey a bit, for five minutes, “so that the Englishman can see.” And the ruler does nothing, because he doesn’t want to become unpopular.
This explains a lot about Brazilian public life to this day: Brazilians are used to seeing the government pass crazy laws, but they don’t worry until they see that the law sticks. An example of Brazilian disregard for the law is that, from 1894 to 2025, the inhabitants of the municipality of Rio Claro, São Paulo, were illegally buying and selling watermelons. In 1894, sanitary physicians were certain that watermelon transmitted yellow fever and, in Rio Claro, they managed to pass a law prohibiting the sale of watermelon. The law was so rejected by the public that people forgot about it, and only in 2025 did a city councilor take the initiative to repeal it.
In the case of the Vaccine Revolt, the government insisted on radically imposing a law that didn’t stick at all. As José Murilo de Carvalho recounts in Os Bestializados, the Jenner vaccine, against smallpox, had been administered in Brazil since 1801. In 1831, the Empire of Brazil made it mandatory for children in its capital, Rio de Janeiro. In 1884, the vaccine became mandatory for everyone throughout the Empire; at the end of 1889, shortly after the proclamation of the Republic, the government made it mandatory for all children, and in 1903 a series of decrees expanded the vaccination requirement to a number of categories. In 1904, the sanitary physician Oswaldo Cruz drafted a bill, leaked to the press, which decreed what we called a vaccination passport during the pandemic. Even to stay in hotels or to work as a domestic employee, it would be necessary to present proof of vaccination.
There were other important social components. The people were already bothered by the intrusion of the government’s sanitary physicians. Since 1903, they had been organizing brigades to inspect the hygiene and sanitation of the homes of the poor. During the inspection, the resident was forced to wait outside and then received orders to put tiles in the kitchen, or other things. This was offensive to the people.
As the Republic was incipient and poorly organized, the positivists, who had many members in the Army, wanted to stage another coup d’état. Thus, through public speeches and newspapers, they fueled this discontent. The inviolability of the home was very important and popular. In this vein, a politician even gave a speech saying that only a Messalina would bare her arms to the health agent, never the wives and daughters of respectable people. (Brazilians are not special connoiseurs of Roman history; Messalina’s name just became a slur.) According to José Murilo de Carvalho, the opinion of the positivist newspapers even reached the old black ladies, who couldn’t read but said that it was in the newspaper that the vaccine was a naughtiness. During the revolt, the vaccination rate plummeted: the smallpox vaccine was known by the public for long, but, with its politicization and effective imposition, it began to be rejected by those who formerly took it. In the end, the popular rebels were victorious, as Oswaldo Cruz did not insist on the bill.
We can assume, then, that the greatest Brazilian popular revolt was due to a rare conjunction between popular sentiment and the instigation of powerful middle-class leaders against a government action. If the positivists had not made the issue a battle cry, it is quite possible that Oswaldo Cruz’s vaccination impetus would have had the same fate as the anti-watermelon fury in Rio Claro. Between public power and the Brazilian people, there is a dynamic reminiscent of that of the King in The Little Prince, who only gave reasonable orders: he ordered the sun to rise early in the morning and the sun to set in the evening. In the case of an unreasonable order, we have a law that does not stick.
Balance
The problem with this dynamic is that the people, in the face of the government, are always in a reactive position, never demanding anything. Public infrastructure is not delivered, public employees who don’t show up, drug trafficking dominating the cities: everything stays the same.
On the other hand, the Argentine example shows that rebelling is no guarantee of anything. To ascertain whether Brazilians are especially peaceful, José Murilo de Carvalho compared the numbers of dead and wounded in the French popular revolts to those of the Vaccine Revolt and concluded that the latter is small potatoes compared to the French ones. Now, the French still break things for more random reasons. If Brazil wins the World Cup, Brazilians celebrate. If France wins the World Cup, the French set fire to cars. Certainly, peoples have different collective psychologies, and the Brazilian people are of a much more peaceful nature than the French and Argentine people. We even tend towards conformism, except when it is within our reach to offer passive resistance.
Comparison with the Russians
A Brazilian might pick up a Soviet humor book and identify with jokes against the government, such as “they pretend to pay us, we pretend to work.” There’s so much in common in spirit that this same joke appears in the mouth of the soccer player Vampeta: “they pretend to pay me, I pretend to play.” Contrary to what the translators of the jokes intend, this doesn’t mean that Brazil lives under a regime similar to the Soviet one, but that Brazilians have a disposition similar to that of Russians when dealing with the state. After all, Russians made jokes against the Tsar before making jokes against the Soviets; they are just less well-known because there wasn’t a global anti-Tsarist propaganda, but rather an anti-communist propaganda willing to publish Soviet jokes in various languages. The anecdotes show that, instead of breaking everything like the French or banging pots and pans in the Kremlin like the Argentinians, Russians drag their feet and tell jokes, like Brazilians. I just don’t know if they have “laws that don’t stick.”
The Communist Revolution itself suggests a greater similarity between Russia and Brazil than between Russia and France. If Brazilian republicans were frustrated with the Proclamation because they had a romantic and Frenchified idea of the people, Lenin, in Russia, did not nurture such expectations: he created the theory of revolution carried out by a vanguard. In Italy, Mussolini created a right-wing Leninism and also had spectacular success. It would be easier to conclude that the idealization of the people is a particularity of peoples prone to romanticism (French and Germans) and should not be universalized.
The problem in Brazil is not that the people don’t break everything nor bang pots and pans. The problem in present-day Brazil is, firstly, the poor quality of its elites, and secondly, the omission of the intermediate classes. Let’s take a concrete case: mandatory Covid vaccination for children (and babies) from 6 months of age. This is a unique case in the whole world, and can only be explained by the absolute imbecility of the Brazilian political elites. Did this law stick? No. Most parents don’t want to give this vaccine to their kids; schools, even public ones, generally don’t require it; public health centers, due to lack of demand, don’t order more vaccines, so the crazy parent who wants to give this thing to his child can’t even get it – and the TV, aligned with the government, denounces it.
Instead of protesting and communicating with the people, the intermediate classes of Brazil have preferred to say amen to the government so as not to look bad (even if they don’t get the vaccine, nor give it to their children). That’s where the biggest problem lies.
A highly anticipated gene therapy human trial is now testing whether scientists can make aging cells behave like younger ones, a development that could open a new chapter in regenerative medicine. The study, focused on keeping cells young through a process known as partial reprogramming, has treated its first patient with a form of glaucoma that can lead to blindness.
The trial is being conducted by Life Biosciences, a biotechnology company based in Boston. Researchers are testing a gene therapy designed to activate three specific genes inside cells. The goal is to restore some of the traits of younger cells without changing their identity or normal function.
Scientists have long been interested in the possibility of reversing some effects of aging at the cellular level. The new trial marks one of the first major efforts to test that idea in people.
Glaucoma was chosen as the first target because the disease damages neurons in the optic nerve, which carries visual information from the eye to the brain. Once injured, these nerve cells normally do not regenerate. Researchers hope the treatment will encourage damaged neurons to repair themselves and restore lost function.
The approach is based on a concept called partial reprogramming. Scientists discovered years ago that four genes could transform adult cells into stem-cell-like cells. While that breakthrough created powerful research tools, it also raised concerns because fully reprogrammed cells lose their specialized roles.
The new strategy takes a more controlled approach. Instead of using all four genes, researchers activate only three. The aim is to roll back some signs of aging while allowing cells to remain the specialized cells they were meant to be.
Interest in the field grew after a 2020 study led by geneticist David Sinclair. His team reported that activating the three genes in mice with damaged optic nerves promoted nerve regeneration and improved vision. The treatment also appeared to reverse vision loss in older mice and animals with glaucoma.
Scientists have launched the first human trial of a gene therapy designed to make aging cells act young again. The treatment uses three genes to partially reprogram cells and is being tested in glaucoma patients. pic.twitter.com/A7nVv2vmdi
— Tom Marvolo Riddle (@tom_riddle2025) June 10, 2026
Those findings generated excitement among scientists studying aging and longevity. They suggested that some effects of aging might not be permanent and that cells may retain the ability to recover youthful functions under the right conditions.
Since then, Life Biosciences has carried out additional studies in rodents and monkeys. According to the company, those experiments did not reveal serious safety problems. The human trial is now intended to determine whether the treatment can be used safely in patients.
Although several animal studies have reported promising results, some researchers worry that changing a cell’s biological age could have unintended consequences. One concern is that reprogrammed cells might begin dividing uncontrollably, increasing the risk of cancer.
Matt Kaeberlein said the technology offers enormous potential if it can be shown to work safely in people. At the same time, he noted that the field remains in its early stages and that researchers must carefully watch for serious side effects.
Experts say the eye may be one of the safest places to begin testing the approach. Any unexpected effects are likely to remain localized, reducing the risk of widespread damage elsewhere in the body.
Researchers view the trial as an important milestone for a field that has largely been confined to laboratory and animal studies. Success could eventually lead to treatments for diseases linked to aging and tissue degeneration. Failure, however, could reinforce concerns about the risks of altering cellular identity.
For now, scientists are watching closely as the first participants receive a therapy designed to answer one of medicine’s most ambitious questions: Can aging cells truly be persuaded to act young again?
Researchers have developed an AI-designed vaccine that could protect against a broad range of coronaviruses, including future strains that have not yet emerged.
Scientists at the University of Cambridge say the project marks the first time an Artificial Intelligence-designed vaccine antigen has been tested in human volunteers. They believe the technology could eventually help protect against entire families of viruses rather than individual strains.
Most vaccines are built using versions of viruses that are already circulating. As those viruses mutate, vaccines often need updating to remain effective. The new approach aims to overcome that challenge.
Researchers collected genetic information from a wide range of coronaviruses identified through surveillance programs that monitor viruses with pandemic potential. Artificial intelligence then analyzed the data and designed a “super-antigen,” a vaccine component intended to train the immune system to recognize many related coronaviruses at once.
Antigens are the parts of vaccines that teach the immune system what to attack. Researchers say the AI-designed antigen could potentially protect against current coronavirus variants as well as animal viruses that may one day spread to humans.
Professor Jonathan Heeney of the University of Cambridge described the research as a major shift in pandemic preparedness. He said the goal is to develop vaccines that protect against future threats rather than reacting after outbreaks occur.
The first human trial involved 39 volunteers and was designed to evaluate safety. Researchers reported no major safety concerns. A larger study involving about 200 participants is now underway to better understand how effectively the vaccine stimulates immune responses.
Scientists at the University of Cambridge say AI developed a vaccine’s ‘key component’ for the first time
The vaccine was engineered to work on all coronaviruses, but is in its early stages of work pic.twitter.com/YYt5SGDe5v
— Interesting AF (@interesting_aIl) June 5, 2026
Results published in the Journal of Infection showed that the vaccine generated a measurable, though modest, immune response. Despite the early-stage findings, researchers and independent experts say the technology shows significant promise.
Professor Saul Faust of the University of Southampton, who helped conduct some of the trials, said the approach has strong potential, particularly for rapidly changing viruses that can spark future pandemics.
Researchers are already applying the technology to other diseases. Animal studies are underway on a universal influenza vaccine that could eliminate the need for yearly updates. Scientists are also developing vaccines targeting H5N1 bird flu and viral hemorrhagic fevers, including Ebola.
Professor Andy Pollard, director of the Oxford Vaccine Group, said the findings add to growing evidence that artificial intelligence could transform vaccine research. He noted that future AI systems may help predict how the immune system will respond to vaccine candidates, potentially accelerating development.
Professor Marian Knight, scientific director at the National Institute for Health and Care Research, called the trial an important step toward broader and longer-lasting protection against viral diseases.
UK Science Minister Patrick Vallance said the early results demonstrate how artificial intelligence and scientific research can work together to create new medical tools.
Researchers caution that much larger studies are needed before the vaccine can be widely used. However, they believe the technology could help the world prepare for future pandemics before they begin.
Among the most intriguing practices in Ancient Greek medicine was the use of spiderwebs—and even live spiders—in healing treatments. Ancient medicine often surprises modern readers with remedies that seem unusual at first glance, yet many of these traditional approaches contained a practical logic beneath layers of symbolism and inherited belief.
Greek and Roman physicians placed particular emphasis on controlling bleeding, especially in the context of warfare and surgery. Soldiers frequently sustained deep wounds from swords, spears, and arrows, while physicians had no access to modern antiseptics or advanced surgical instruments. In response, healers continuously experimented with natural materials that could help stop blood flow and protect exposed tissue. One of the more unusual solutions they turned to was spiderwebs.
Ancient Greek and Roman medical writers do, in fact, refer to the use of spiderwebs in medicine. Spider silk was observed to have properties that made it unexpectedly effective for wound care. Physicians noted its ability to absorb blood, cover injuries, and support the clotting process. While they lacked any understanding of modern biochemistry, their meticulous attention to such effects often led them to surprisingly effective medical practices.
The Roman author Pliny the Elder offers some of the clearest references to spider-based medicine in his encyclopedic work Natural History. He describes a range of remedies involving both spiderwebs and actual spiders, noting that the former could help stop bleeding and support healing when applied directly to wounds. He also made mention that spiders were believed to serve as effective remedies for a variety of diseases and injuries in antiquity.
For Ancient Greek healers, spiderwebs appeared naturally suited for wound treatment. Their soft, fibrous texture allowed them to cover cuts with ease, while their adhesive qualities helped seal damaged tissue and protect it. Ancient warfare produced particularly severe injuries. Greek hoplites and Roman soldiers fought in brutal close combat, where swords and spears regularly tore flesh open. Even relatively minor wounds could turn fatal due to blood loss or infection. Physicians accompanying armies therefore required treatments that acted quickly and could be easily carried onto the battlefield.
The use of spiderwebs among the Ancient Romans and Greeks provided several practical advantages in medicine. They were lightweight, widely available in nature, and naturally adhesive when applied to skin. Healers thus collected cobwebs and preserved them for medical use, and soldiers are sometimes described as carrying small containers filled with spiderwebs during military campaigns.
Long before the development of modern antibiotics, healers frequently relied on natural substances that appeared to reduce infection risk and support faster healing.
The great Greek physician Galen likewise discussed spider cobwebs in his work On the Powers of Simple Remedies in which he refers to their Ancient Greek medicinal applications in the treatment of injuries and the control of bleeding. Because gladiators suffered frequent injuries, Galen gained extensive experience treating wounds and preventing infection. Greek medicine placed strong emphasis on observation and practical effectiveness, so physicians often tested remedies repeatedly under real and demanding conditions.
This connection makes historical sense. Ancient doctors valued materials that combined absorbency, flexibility, and ease of application. Spider silk possessed all three qualities. Furthermore, physicians in antiquity often preferred natural substances that were readily available in military environments, where medical resources were limited.
Modern science helps explain why ancient healers valued spiderwebs. Spider silk is composed of strong protein fibers capable of forming protective coverings over wounds. The silk also absorbs moisture effectively and creates a temporary barrier against dirt and contaminants. Additionally, spiderwebs may exhibit mild antiseptic properties due to natural compounds present within the silk. Although ancient physicians could not observe bacteria, they recognized through experience that some treatments reduced infection more effectively than others.
Many people also associate spiderwebs with clotting because webs can contain traces of vitamin K from insect remains and environmental material. Vitamin K is a nutrient that contributes to blood coagulation in the human body. Most importantly, however, the web itself functions physically as a mesh. When pressed against a wound, the fibers help gather blood and support clot formation.
Modern medicine even studies spider silk for advanced surgical materials due to its exceptional strength and biocompatibility. Ironically, contemporary science now investigates properties that ancient healers observed intuitively thousands of years ago. Thus, ancient healers may have developed practical wound-care techniques through centuries of observation rather than theoretical science.
The use of spiderwebs highlights a central feature of ancient medicine, namely that Greek and Roman physicians often relied on empirical observation rather than formal scientific theory. They closely observed which remedies appeared effective and preserved those methods within medical tradition.
Greek physicians, in particular, placed great value on careful observation. The Hippocratic tradition encouraged doctors to study symptoms, environments, diets, and physical responses in detail. As a result, treatments survived not because they were theoretically justified but because they produced visible and consistent results. In this context, spiderwebs were valued because their silk fibers formed a natural covering over wounds while also helping to control blood flow. Folk medicine across many cultures likewise used cobwebs as anti-fungal and antiseptic remedies for cuts and open injuries.
Spiderwebs likely entered medical practice through precisely this kind of experiential process. Healers observed reduced bleeding and improved healing following their application, and over time, the practice spread across regions and generations. Cobwebs were part of a much broader landscape of natural medicine in antiquity. Ancient healers regularly used honey, wine, herbs, oils, vinegar, and minerals in wound care and general treatment.
Many of these substances also possessed genuine antibacterial or medicinal properties. Honey, for instance, inhibits bacterial growth and is still used in certain modern wound treatments. Wine and vinegar functioned as early disinfectants due to their alcohol and acid content. Within this framework, spiderwebs would not have seemed unusual to ancient physicians. Instead, they represented another readily available natural material with observable healing potential. Greek and Roman medicine thus consistently explored the relationship between nature and health, making use of natural resources, including even something so peculiar to modern eyes as spiderwebs.
Ancient cultures attached rich symbolic meaning to spiders and the act of weaving, and in Greek tradition, these associations carried particular weight. Mythology linked weaving to intelligence, fate, and skilled craftsmanship through figures such as Athena and Arachne, embedding it within a broader cultural framework that connected material creation with order, skill, and even divine influence. Spider silk itself likely appeared mysterious and almost otherworldly, given its delicate structure and surprising strength—qualities that blurred the boundary between natural substance and something almost magical.
This symbolic dimension may have reinforced confidence in cobweb-based remedies, since ancient medicine often operated at the intersection of practical treatment and cultural meaning. In battlefield contexts especially, where speed and improvisation were essential, surgeons had to remove arrows, close wounds, cauterize bleeding, and stabilize fractures under extreme conditions with limited equipment, relying heavily on whatever materials were immediately available. Spiderwebs fit this environment well, both practically and symbolically, as soldiers or assistants could gather them quickly from camps, caves, or buildings, requiring no preparation and allowing for rapid application under pressure.
Even when cobwebs were not perfectly effective, they could still provide a basic protective layer that was often better than leaving wounds exposed, which would have only allowed dirt and uncontrolled bleeding to pose immediate risks to survival. In many cases, this simple barrier alone may have made a meaningful difference in outcomes. Today, the same material that once carried symbolic and practical value in antiquity is again attracting scientific interest, as researchers explore spider silk for potential applications in surgery, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine.
Most of us assume that looking after our teeth is a modern habit shaped by supermarket shelves, mint-flavored ads, and childhood dentist scares, but a surviving Ancient Greek toothpaste recipe suggests otherwise.
Sitting quietly in the Austrian National Library in Vienna is one of the most remarkable documents in the history of medicine: a small, faded papyrus from the fourth century AD containing what is widely considered the world’s oldest surviving, precise toothpaste formula.
The existence of this Ancient Greek toothpaste recipe points to something larger at work. By the time it was copied onto papyrus, Greek had long since become the language of science, medicine, and intellectual life across the Mediterranean. This linguistic dominance was a legacy of the conquests of Alexander the Great and, above all, of Alexandria, the city his successors transformed into the ancient world’s foremost hub of knowledge. Even in Roman Egypt, centuries after the Ptolemies had given way to the Caesars, Greek remained the language a physician used when he wanted to be taken seriously.
The papyrus first came to the attention of modern researchers in 2003, when curators at the Austrian National Library in Vienna identified it while preparing for an international dental congress. It had likely been sitting in the collection for years, its significance unnoticed and largely forgotten. Once translated, however, scholars quickly realized what they were looking at—a toothpaste formula that predates the first commercially marketed toothpaste, Colgate, launched in 1873, by well over fifteen hundred years.
The formula itself is strikingly systematic. The scribe prescribes “a powder for white and perfect teeth” composed of four ingredients: one drachma of rock salt, two drachmas of mint, one drachma of dried iris flower, and twenty grains of pepper. The drachma in this context was a standard unit of Greek medical weight, roughly equivalent to one-eighth of an ounce (about 3–4 grams), part of the same measurement system used throughout the major pharmacological texts of the ancient world. Taken together, the recipe reads less like folklore and more like a physician’s deliberate prescription, carefully calibrated for a patient.
But one might wonder if it actually worked. In 2003, Austrian dentist Dr. Heinz Neuman decided to test it for himself by recreating the formula. His conclusion was cautious but intriguing: the mixture was mildly abrasive and caused slight gum bleeding, yet it also produced a noticeable sensation of cleanliness and freshness. Modern dental science helps explain why. Dried iris flower, or orris root, is now known to contain antibacterial compounds that target the pathogens responsible for gum disease. What might once have looked like ancient guesswork increasingly appears to be empirical knowledge derived through observation and practice. In this sense, modern pharmaceutical science is only now arriving at conclusions the Greeks and Egyptians had already explored more than a thousand years earlier.
None of this should entirely surprise us when we consider the world from which this recipe emerged. Ancient Greece had produced Pedanius Dioscorides, whose monumental work on medicinal plants shaped medical practice for more than a millennium. It had also produced physicians, botanists, and scholars who approached the human body with a level of rigor and curiosity that few ancient traditions matched. The anonymous scribe who recorded this formula was working squarely within that intellectual lineage, effectively encoding practical medical knowledge in Greek because it was the language in which serious medicine was conducted at the time.
The paste itself would have been applied without anything resembling a modern toothbrush. A folded linen cloth or a frayed chew stick—a fibrous twig worn soft at the tip through repeated use—would have served the purpose well enough. The tools were simple, but the intention was essentially the same as ours.
There is a quiet continuity in that detail. The next time you reach for mint toothpaste in the morning, you are participating in a ritual that a Greek-speaking scribe in Roman Egypt thought important enough to preserve on papyrus seventeen centuries ago. The ingredients have been refined, the packaging has changed beyond recognition, and no one is applying the mixture with linen anymore. Still, the impulse behind it—the very human desire for clean, white teeth—remains as old as the ancient world itself, and in many ways, the Ancient Greek world had already put the first working version of the answer into writing.
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