There are at least fourteen major operas that are based on themes and personages from Greek mythology and its glittering history. That says all one needs to know about the universality of Greek mythology and history, how much these have meant to the Western world, and how relevant they remain to this day.

The titanic themes of love, power, jealousy, greed, fear are all there in Greek mythology and history, and of course, they are well-represented in opera as well, which usually takes its listeners and viewers on emotional roller coasters through those same motifs.

14 operas based on Greek mythology

Operas were first conceived in the late sixteenth century, growing out of the oratorios, often using religious themes, that had been sung by groups and soloists for centuries.

Opera as we know it today began in 1597 with Ottavio Rinuccini’s “Dafne,” (Daphne), which was set to music by Jacopo Peri. Staged as court entertainment, this first opera was a tour-de-force not only of sound but of drama, as well.

The group of Florentine poets and musicians to which Rinuccini belonged, known as the Camerata, sought to revive Greek drama and music as part of the general Renaissance of Greek and Classical culture that was taking place in Western Europe at the time. Not content to explore only themes from the Bible and religious history, they felt it was now time to portray the great stories of the past.

This group of humanist intellectuals would go on to be the pioneers of opera; in many ways, they brought to life the texts written by ancient Greek philosophers, writers, and poets once again, eventually bringing these works to a modern audience.

Florence’s ruling Medici family, strong supporters of all the arts, was sufficiently taken with Dafne to allow Peri’s next work, Euridice, to be performed as part of Marie de’ Medici and Henry IV’s wedding celebrations in 1600.

Thanks to opera’s interest in and preservation of ancient Greek drama, it is no surprise that one of its founding fathers, Claudio Monteverdi, chose Greek tragedy as the theme of his first work.

L’Orfeo (Orpheus) Opera, by Monteverdi

Universally acknowledged as opera’s first masterpiece, Claudio Monteverdi’s L’Orpheo (Orpheus) was a gelling of ideas from the great minds of the Camerata and other composers of that time.

Matthew Aucoin also used this classic tale for his new opera Euridyce, which was first staged at the LA Opera in 2020—420 years after the premiere of the first opera based on Euridyce, created by Jacopo Peri.

The tragic story of Orpheus and Eurydice is as old as time itself, or at least as old as Greek mythology.

As the story goes, Orpheus, ancient Greece’s legendary hero, was endowed with superhuman musical skills. He became the patron of a religious movement based on sacred writings that were said to be his own. Orpheus was said to be the son of a Muse (most likely Calliope, the patron of epic poetry) and Oeagrus, a king of Thrace (although others say it was Apollo).

The story (and the opera) relates the tragic events of his wedding day, when his bride, Eurydice, is bitten by a snake and dies. The newly-widowed Orpheus manages to convince the rulers of the underworld to allow his wife a few more years in the land of the living.

Eurydice is only allowed to leave the underworld as long as Orpheus leads her home without looking back. He gives in to temptation, however, believing his wife is not behind him, and she is tragically trapped in the underworld forever.

In Greek mythology, the heartbroken Orpheus is then killed by wild beasts. Fortunately — certainly for opera lovers—Monteverdi created a happier ending to the story.

The story of Orpheus continues to be opera’s most popular work based on Greek mythology to this day. From Gluck’s Orpheus and Eurydice (Orfeo ed Euridice) to Philip Glass’s chamber opera Orphée, and Harrison Birtwistle’s The Mask of Orpheus, composers have been drawn to the tale for hundreds of years.

Dafni, “Daphne,” by Rinuccini

The story of Daphne, the nymph from Greek mythology who was turned into a tree to escape the lustful advances of the god Apollo, was first set to music by Jacopo Peri, but at least two of the six surviving fragments are by Jacopo Corsi. The libretto, by Rinuccini, survives complete; the music,  mostly now lost, was first performed during the Carnival of 1598 at the Palazzo Corsi.

Daphne was the child of Peneus, a Thessalian river god. Her decidedly sad and violent story in which she is transformed into a tree to escape the lustful attention of the god Apollo, gives rise to the ancient explanation of the creation of the laurel tree, known as “Daphne” by the ancient Greeks.

Les Troyens, by Hector Berlioz

Les Troyens, or The Trojans, a French grand opera in five acts, is based loosely on the history of the Trojan War, although the libretto was written by Berlioz himself from Virgil’s epic poem the Aeneid. With a score composed between 1856 and 1858, it is another opera based on Greek history and mythology, and one that best exemplifies the art form.

Featuring characters such as Priam, Hector and Andromache, it is a triumph of spectacle that brings Ancient Greece vividly back to life.

“Alessandro,” by Handel

Alessandro, an opera based on the extraordinary life of Alexander the Great, was composed by George Frideric Handel in 1726 for the Royal Academy of Music. Paolo Rolli’s libretto is based on the story of Ortensio Mauro’s “La superbia d’Alessandro.” This was the first time the famous singers Faustina Bordoni and Francesca Cuzzoni appeared together in one of Handel’s operas. The original cast also included Francesco Bernardi, who was known as Senesino.

Handel’s opera received its first performance on May 5, 1726 at the King’s Theatre, London and was reportedly received “with great applause.”

The story recounts Alexander the Great’s journey to India and depicts him less in a heroic vein than as vainglorious and indecisive in matters of the heart. The work’s charm and lightness of touch make it at times almost a comic work—something which is extremely unusual in the realm of Greek mythology and history.

Atalanta, by George Friedrich Handel

The huntress Atalanta from Boeotia, the daughter of King Schoeneus, was primarily noted for her skill in running, according to Greek mythology. Atalanta was a local figure allied to the goddess Artemis. Statues of the goddess show her taking off at a full sprint.

Atalanta, the pastoral opera in three acts by George Frideric Handel, was composed in 1736.

The great composer created it for the London celebrations of the marriage in 1736 of Frederick, Prince of Wales, eldest son of King George II, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Gotha. The first performance took place on May 12, 1736 in the Covent Garden Theatre.

Médée (Medea), by Luigi Cherubini

With a libretto by François-Benoît Hoffman (Nicolas Étienne Framéry) this is a French language opéra-comique based on Euripides’ tragedy of Medea and Pierre Corneille’s play Médée. It is set in the ancient city of Corinth.

The opera was premiered on March 13, 1797 at the Théâtre Feydeau, in Paris. During the twentieth century, it was usually performed in Italian translation as Medea, with the spoken dialogue replaced by recitatives that were not authorized by the composer. More recently, opera companies have returned to Cherubini’s original version.

Greece’s operatic queen Maria Callas performed this work to thunderous ovations in December of 1961 at La Scala, in a tour de force that has gone down in operatic legend.

Phryné

Phryné is an 1893 opéra comique in two acts by Camille Saint-Saëns, with a libretto by Lucien Augé de Lassus, based on the life of ancient Greek courtesan Phryne. Saint-Saëns also wrote the much-loved Carnival of the Animals.

Phryne, born c. 371 BC, was an ancient Greek courtesan or hetaira. She is best known for her trial for impiety, where she was defended by the orator Hypereides. She was born the daughter of Epicles at Thespiae in Boeotia but lived in Athens.

The most well-known event in Phryne’s life is her trial. Athenaeus writes that she was prosecuted for a capital charge and defended by the orator Hypereides, who was one of her lovers. Athenaeus does not specify the nature of the charge, but Pseudo-Plutarch writes that she was accused of impiety.

The speech for the prosecution was written by Anaximenes of Lampsacus, according to Diodorus Periegetes. When it seemed as if the verdict would be unfavorable, Hypereides removed Phryne’s robe and bared her breasts before the judges to arouse their pity. Her beauty instilled the judges with a superstitious fear, and they could not bring themselves to condemn “a prophetess and priestess of Aphrodite” to death. They decided to acquit her forthwith.

Temistocle (Themistocles) Opera, by Johann Christian Bach

Temistocle (Themistocles) is an opera seria in three acts by the German composer Johann Christian Bach. The Italian text is an extensive revision of the libretto by Metastasio first set by Antonio Caldara in 1736, by Mattia Verazi, court poet and private secretary to the Elector Palatine Carl Theodor.

The opera was the first of two which J. C. Bach composed for the Elector Palatine. Some of the music was reused from earlier works, including part of the overture from Carattaco (composed in London in 1767).

The opera takes place in Persia. Themistocles, together with his son Neocle, has been expelled from Athens. He arrives incognito at Susa, the capital of his arch-enemy King Serse, to find that his daughter Aspasia (in love with the Athenian ambassador Lisimaco) has also made her way there following a shipwreck. Eventually, all is revealed, and Serse magnanimously pardons everybody, unites the lovers, and makes peace with Athens.

Thespis, by Gilbert and Sullivan

Thespis, or “The Gods Grown Old,” is an operatic extravaganza that was the first collaboration between dramatist W. S. Gilbert and composer Arthur Sullivan. It is another in the much-needed genre of a lighter take on Greek mythological stories. Gilbert and Sullivan were the most famous and successful artistic partnership in Victorian England, creating a string of enduring comic opera hits, including H.M.S. Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado.

Thespis premièred in London at the Gaiety Theatre on December 16, 1871. Like many productions at that theater, it was written in a burlesque style, considerably different from Gilbert and Sullivan’s later works. It was a success and closed on March 8, 1872 after a run of sixty-three performances.

The story follows an acting troupe headed by Thespis, the legendary Greek father of the drama, who temporarily trades places with the gods on Mount Olympus, who have grown elderly and are getting ignored. The actors turn out to be comically inept rulers. Having witnessed the ensuing mayhem down below, the angry gods return, sending the actors back to Earth as “eminent tragedians, whom no one ever goes to see.”

Idomeneo, by Mozart

Idomeneus, King of Crete, is an Italian language opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. The libretto was adapted by Giambattista Varesco from a French text by Antoine Danchet, based on a 1705 play by Crébillion père, which had been set to music by André Campra, as Idoménée, in 1712.

Now considered to be one of the greatest operas of all time, Idomeneo premiered on January 29, 1781 at the Cuvilliés Theatre in Munich, Germany. With Idomeneo, Mozart demonstrated a mastery of orchestral color, accompanied recitatives, and melodic line. Mozart was recorded as fighting with the librettist, the court chaplain Varesco, making large cuts and changes to it.

Orpheus in the Underworld (comic operetta version by French composer Jacques Offenbach)

With a French-language libretto by Hector Crémieux and Ludovic Halévy, this is a lighthearted, satirical treatment of the ancient Greek myth of Orpheus.

As unlikely as that seemed at the time, it is perhaps one way to deal with the almost never-ending drama, heartbreak, and tragedy that features in much of Greek mythology.

It premiered on October 21, 1858 at the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens in Paris. The work’s best-known episode is, incredibly, a cancan routine that appears in the overture and the final scene.

The classic story of Orpheus concerns a renowned musician who is so distraught over the death of his wife, Eurydice, that he attempts to rescue her from the Underworld, the place of the dead. This tragic tale was adapted for opera by many composers, including Claudio Monteverdi who wrote and first performed the opera in 1607, Christoph Gluck, who first performed it in 1762, and Joseph Haydn, who in 1791 wrote his version, which was performed only in 1951.

Unlike other composers, Offenbach gave the story a modern twist, making it into a farce. In his version, Orpheus and Eurydice, though married to each other, are amicably living separate lives, each blissfully occupied with a new lover. Like Eurydice in the original Greek story, Offenbach’s heroine is fatally bitten by a snake but, rather than dying tragically, she willingly relocates to the Underworld to be with Pluto, the ruler of the Underworld, who had become her lover while she was alive.

In Offenbach’s version, Orpheus only retrieves Eurydice against his will, and both he and Eurydice are pleased when his attempt fails. Offenbach was equally irreverent regarding the music he used for this opera, alternating courtly minuets with high-kicking cancans and even quoting satirically from Gluck’s earlier opera.

When Offenbach’s opera premiered, critics expressed shock, both because it mocked Gluck’s revered telling of the tale from Greek mythology—and because it dismissed the idea of the perfection of ancient Greece.

Audiences, however, loved it, and within a few years, Orpheus in the Underworld became an international success.

Elektra, by Richard Strauss

In 1905, composer Richard Strauss attended a performance of Hugo von Hofmannsthal’s Elektra. Soon after, Strauss reached out to the playwright, having decided the play would be ideal for operatic treatment. The two men then collaborated on the composer’s second major opera.

Both the play and opera are adaptations of Greek playwright Sophocles’ Elektra and so follow the legend closely. In Greek mythology, Elektra was the daughter of the king and queen of Mycenae.

She is devastated when her father, Agamemnon, is killed. Believing her mother to be responsible, Elektra and her brother seek revenge and murder their mother and her lover.

Strauss’ version of the tragedy is set to a German libretto, and unlike the myth, his Elektra falls dead at the end of the opera.

Sappho Opera, by Charles Gounod

The story of Sappho, a female poet from the island of Lesbos, was put to music by Charles Gounod. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by music. In ancient times, Sappho was widely regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets; even then, she was given names such as the “Tenth Muse” and “The Poetess.”

Most of her poetry is now tragically lost, and what is extant has mostly survived in fragmentary form; only the “Ode to Aphrodite” is complete.

Ariadne auf Naxos Opera, by Richard Strauss

This 1912 opera by Richard Strauss has a German libretto by Hugo von Hofmannsthal. The opera’s unusual combination of elements of low commedia dell’arte with those of high opera seria points up one of the work’s principal themes: the competition between high and low art for the public’s attention.

Ariadne auf Naxos is in two parts, called the Prologue and the Opera. The first part shows the backstage circumstances leading up to the second part, making this an opera within an opera.

At the home of the richest man in Vienna, preparations for an evening of music are under way. Two troupes of musicians and singers have arrived. One is a burlesque group, led by the saucy comedienne Zerbinetta. The other is an opera company, who will present an opera seria, Ariadne auf Naxos, the work of the Composer.

The second part of the opera portrays the story from Greek mythology, with Ariadne shown abandoned by her former lover, Theseus, on the desert island of Naxos, with no company other than the nymphs Naiad, Dryad, and Echo.

She bewails her fate, mourns her lost love, and longs for death. Zerbinetta and her four companions from the burlesque group enter and attempt to cheer on Ariadne by singing and dancing but without success. In a sustained and dazzling piece of coloratura singing, Zerbinetta tells the Princess to let bygones be bygones and insists that the simplest way to get over a broken heart is to find another man.

In a comic interlude, each of the clowns pursues Zerbinetta. Eventually, she chooses Harlequin, a baritone, and the two sing a love duet together while the other clowns express frustration and envy.

The nymphs announce the arrival of a stranger on the island. Ariadne thinks it is Hermes, the messenger of death, but it is the god Bacchus, who is fleeing from the sorceress Circe. At first, they do not understand their mistaken identification of each other.

Bacchus eventually falls in love with Ariadne, who agrees to follow him to the realm of death to search for Theseus. Bacchus promises to set her in the heavens as a constellation. Zerbinetta returns briefly to repeat her philosophy of love: when a new love arrives, one has no choice but to yield. The opera ends with a passionate duet sung by Ariadne and Bacchus.

Greek mythology is the setting for many of our cultural touchstones. It has formed the theme of so many works created over the centuries by the most brilliant artists of modern times, bringing Ancient Greece to life once more.

Few things on this earth are as lovely as a wooden ship with its sails unfurled, sailing on the open sea; the Ancient Greek trireme ships are no exception to this rule, but of course, they were once warships that were so deadly they enabled the rise of Athens as a great power.

The graceful ships, which were propelled not only by two large sails but by three ranks of men pulling on oars, may have originated in Corinth or perhaps further afield in Phoenicia. Wherever they were first created, triremes were used by all the ancient maritime civilizations around the Mediterranean Sea, including the Phoenicians and Romans as well as the ancient Greeks.

The trireme derives its name from its three rows of oars, with one man working each oar. The early trireme was a further development of the penteconter, an ancient warship with a single row of 25 oars on each side, and the bireme, a warship with two banks of oars, from Phoenicia.

Triremes played an integral role in the rise of Athens as a great power

Known for its speed and agility in battle, the trireme was the dominant warship in the Mediterranean from the 7th to the 4th centuries BC, after which it was largely superseded by the larger quadriremes and quinqueremes, with four and five banks of rowers.

Triremes played a vital role in the history of Ancient Greece during the Persian Wars and the creation of the Athenian maritime empire — as well as its downfall in the Peloponnesian War.

Modern scholarship is divided on the provenance of the trireme — although it was either Greece or Phoenicia — and the exact time it developed into the foremost ancient fighting ship. The Greek writer Clement of Alexandria, drawing on earlier works, explicitly attributes the invention of the trireme to Sidon, the great Phoenician city.

According to the great historian Thucydides, the trireme was introduced to Greece by the Corinthians in the late 8th century BC; the Corinthian Ameinocles was recorded as building four such ships for the Samians.

In the ancient world, naval combat relied on two methods: boarding and ramming. Rams (embolon) were fitted to the prows of warships and were used to rupture the hull of the enemy ship.

The first definitive reference to the use of triremes in naval combat dates back to approximately 525 BC, when the historian Herodotus wrote that the tyrant Polycrates of Samos was able to contribute 40 triremes to a Persian invasion of Egypt for the Battle of Pelusium.

Thucydides meanwhile clearly states that in the time of the Persian Wars, the majority of the Greek navies consisted of (probably two-tiered) penteconters and ploia makrá (“long ships”). In any case, by the early fifth century, the trireme was becoming the dominant type of warship in the eastern Mediterranean,

The first large-scale naval battle in which triremes participated was the Battle of Lade during the Ionian Revolt, where the combined fleets of the Greek Ionian cities were defeated by the Persian fleet, composed of squadrons from their Phoenician, Carian, Cypriot, and Egyptian subjects.

It was 483/2 BC, however, that saw the pivotal moment in the development of the trireme, when the Athenian statesman Themistocles persuaded the Athenian assembly to begin the construction of 200 triremes, using the income of the newly discovered silver mines at Laurion.

Triremes sail to the rescue of Greece at Salamis

The decisive naval clash of the Second Persian War occurred at Salamis just two years later, in September of 480 BC, where the fleet under Persian leader Xerxes was decisively defeated.

This naval battle is considered by many historians to be one of the most decisive in history, bringing an end to the threat of the Persian invasion of the West.

Much like the earlier battle at Thermopylae, the heroics at the Battle of Salamis have risen to legendary status, as the allied Greek city-states used approximately 370 trireme ships, and the Persians had over 1,000, according to ancient sources.

The Persians planned to crush the outnumbered Greeks with the sheer force of their massive fleet.

The leader of the Greek naval force, Themistocles, aware of the great number of Persian ships, used that fact against the enemy, luring the Persians to the narrow Strait of Salamis, where the Greek ships were waiting.

Since the massive Persian fleet could not fit in the strait, they quickly became disorganized, opening up a possibility for a Greek victory.

Triremes enabled the creation of Athens’ thalassocracy

The source and foundation of Athens’ lasting political power was her strong fleet, which historians believe was composed of over 200 triremes. It not only secured control of the Aegean Sea and the loyalty of her allies but also safeguarded trade routes and the all-important grain shipments from the Black Sea, with the help of its standing navy of triremes.

Athenian maritime power is the first example of what historians refer to as a “thalassocracy,” or complete dominion over the seas, in world history.

For the crew of Athenian triremes, the ships were an extension of their democratic beliefs.

In thinking of these gigantic ships propelled by manpower, we all can recall the iconic scene of slaves manning the oars of a Roman galley in the movie Ben Hur, with men struggling to keep up with the frenetic pace that was called for in order to ram other naval ships during battle.

And indeed many of the men in such Roman galleys in reality were slaves — but this was emphatically not the case with the Greek triremes. In fact, serving aboard such a vessel was seen as an honor and the oarsmen were from all ranks of life, with rich and poor rowing alongside each other.

Historian Victor Davis Hanson argues that this “served the larger civic interest of acculturating thousands as they worked together in cramped conditions and under dire circumstances.”

Service on Athenian ships was an integral part of the military service although hired foreigners were also accepted. A typical Athenian trireme crew during the Peloponnesian War consisted of 80 citizens, 60 metics (freed slaves), and 60 foreign hands. Indeed, historians say that in the few emergency cases where slaves were used to crew ships, these were deliberately set free, usually before being employed.

Experts say that the design of the trireme most likely pushed the technological limits of the time. The three files of oarsmen on each side worked as one, with each man outboard of, and in height overlapping, the other.

While well-maintained triremes would last up to 25 years, during the Peloponnesian War, Athens had to build nearly 20 triremes a year to maintain their fleet of 300.

Athenian triremes had two great cables called hypozomata (undergirding), stretching from end to end along the middle line of the hull just under the main beams, adding the needed support for ramming during battle.

Triremes decorated with evil eyes, sculptures of deities

Its draft was relatively shallow, about 1 meter, which, in addition to the relatively flat keel allowed a trireme to be beached easily — a great advantage for amphibious operations. The construction of a trireme was expensive and required approximately 6,000 man-days of labor.

The three principal types of wood used were fir, pine, and cedar. Oak was primarily used for the hulls in order that they could withstand the force of being hauled ashore.

In the case of Athens, since most of the fleet’s triremes were paid for by wealthy citizens, there was a natural sense of competition among the patricians to create the “most impressive” trireme, both to intimidate the enemy and, perhaps surprisingly, to attract the best oarsmen.

Triremes made a fearsome and beautiful sight, as we can see from ancient depictions and reproductions of the ships today. They were highly decorated with representations of the evil eye, or mati, and had nameplates, and painted figureheads.

These decorations were used both to show the wealth of the patrician and to make the ship frightening to the enemy. The home port of each trireme was shown with pride by the wooden statue of a deity placed above the bronze ram on the front of the ship.

The resurrection of the trireme in Greece

Triremes had two masts, a main (histos megas) and a small foremast (histos akateios), with square sails, while steering was provided by two steering oars at the stern, with one at the port side and one to starboard.

Classical sources indicate that the trireme was capable of sustained speeds of about 6 knots at a relatively leisurely pace of rowing. There is also a reference by Xenophon to a single day’s voyage from Byzantium to Heraclea Pontica, which translates as an average speed of 7.37 knots.

In Athens, the ship’s captain, known as the trierarchos, would have been a wealthy Athenian citizen. He alone was responsible for manning, fitting out, and maintaining the ship for his liturgical year at least; the ship itself belonged to Athens.

During the Hellenistic period, the relatively lightweight trireme was supplanted by larger warships in dominant navies, especially the quinquereme, while triremes continued to be the mainstay of smaller navies.

Although the Hellenistic kingdoms did develop the quinquereme and even larger ships, most navies of the Greek mainland and the smaller colonies could only afford triremes. They were used by the Diadochi Empires and sea powers like Syracuse, Carthage, and later Rome.

In 1985–1987 a shipbuilder in Piraeus, advised by historian J. S. Morrison and naval architect John F. Coates and informed by evidence from underwater archaeology, built an Athenian-style trireme, Olympias.

The work was also advised by the classics teacher Charles Willink and drew on evidence gained from Greek literature, history of art, and archaeology above and below water.

The Olympias’ bronze bow ram, a copy of an original ram now in the Piraeus archaeological museum, weighs 200 kg. The ship was built from Douglas fir and Virginia oak while its keel is of iroko hardwood.

During its sea trials, in 1987, the Olympias was crewed by 170 volunteer oarsmen and oarswomen. She achieved a speed of 9 knots (17 km/h). These results, achieved with an inexperienced, mixed crew, suggest that ancient historians like Thucydides were not exaggerating about the capabilities of triremes.

Olympias was transported to Britain in 1993, to take part in events celebrating the 2,500 years since the beginning of democracy. In 2004 she was used to transport the Olympic Flame ceremonially from the port of Keratsini to the main port of Piraeus, as the Olympic Torch Relay approached Athens for the 2004 Summer Olympics.